Skip to main content
Log in

Visual representations in crime prevention: exploring the use of building information modelling (BIM) to investigate burglary and crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED)

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Crime Prevention and Community Safety Aims and scope

Abstract

Criminological research has long utilized visual representations of environments in seeking to explore perceptions of crime and personal safety and to investigate the relevance of specific design and security features. Much of this research has been in the field of environmental psychology and crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). This paper traces the development of visual representations and the use of environmental stimuli in criminological research. We briefly review the contributions made by various visual media, including maps and drawings, photographs, models, video, virtual reality and gaming engines. These developments in visualization, building design and management technology have drastically improved the realism of representations of environments, and the potential for more standardized, widespread exploration and application of CPTED principles to reduce crime. To scope and evaluate the future potential of such emergent technologies, we critically review the literature concerned with virtual reality and building information technology (BIM), outlining uses in practice and new opportunities for criminological research. We frame the discussion with specific focus on analysing proposed residential dwellings to reduce vulnerability to burglary. A layered exploration for how BIM technologies may assist in implementing increasingly sophisticated assessments of crime vulnerability for proposed residential building designs brings the paper to a close. These discussions provide both a comprehensive overview for interested practitioners and chart specific opportunities for further research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdulkarim, D., and J.L. Nasar. 2014. Do Seats, Food Vendors, and Sculptures Improve Plaza Visitability? Environment and Behavior 46: 805–825.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adams, D. 1994. Urban Planning and the Development Process. London: UCL Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andresen, M.A. 2014. Environmental Criminology: Evolution, theory and practice. Abingdon: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Aranda, G., and E. Finch. 2003. Using Repository Grids to Measure Changes in Risk-Taknig Behavior. Journal of Construction Research 4: 101–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arayici, Y., P. Coates, L. Koskela, M. Kagioglou, C. Usher, and K. O’Reilly. 2011. Technology Adoption in the BIM Implementation for Lean Architectural Practice. Automation in Construction 20: 189–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armitage, R. 2007. Sustainability Versus Safety: Confusion, Conflict and Contradiction in Designing Out Crime. In Imagination for Crime Prevention. Crime Prevention Studies, vol. 21, ed. G. Farrell, K. Bowers, S. Johnson, and M. Townsley, 81–110. Monsey: Criminal Justice Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armitage, R. 2016. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. In Crime Science Series, ed. Environmental Criminology, and Crime Analysis, 259–285. Abingdon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armitage, R. 2017. Burglars’ take on crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED): Reconsidering the relevance from an offender perspective. Security Journal.

  • Armitage, R., and L. Monchuk. 2011. Sustaining the Crime Reduction Impact of Designing Out Crime: Re-Evaluating the Secured by Design Scheme 10 Years on. Security Journal 24: 320–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, D.M., and C. Sanders. 2007. Graffiti and Perceptions of Safety: A Pilot Study Using Photographs and Survey Data. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture 14: 292–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • Azhar, S., W.A. Carlton, D. Olsen, and I. Ahmad. 2011. Building Information Modeling for Sustainable Design and LEED® Rating Analysis. Automation in Construction 20: 217–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailenson, J.N., J.I.M. Blascovich, A.C. Beall, and B. Noveck. 2006. Courtroom Applications of Virtual Environments, Immersive Virtual Environments, and Collaborative Virtual Environments. Law and Policy 28: 249–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, T., and R. Wright. 1984. Burglars on Burglary: Prevention and the Offender. Gower: Aldershot.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bereitschaft, B. 2016. Gods of the City? Reflecting on City Building Games as an Early Introduction to Urban Systems. Journal of Geography 115: 51–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B.B., and I. Altman. 1983. Territoriality, Defensible Space and Residential Burglary: An Environmental Analysis. Journal of Environmental Psychology 3: 203–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B.B., and D.L. Bentley. 1993. Residential Burglars Judge Risk: The Role of Territoriality. Journal of Environmental Psychology 13: 51–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bullinger, H.-J., W. Bauer, G. Wenzel, and R. Blach. 2010. Towards User Centred Design (UCD) in Architecture Based on Immersive Virtual Environments. Computers in Industry 61: 372–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, H.-T., S.-W. Wu, and S.-H. Hsieh. 2013. Visualization of CCTV Coverage in Public Building Space Using BIM Technology. Visualization in Engineering 1: 5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chon, J., and C. Scott Shafer. 2009. Aesthetic Responses to Urban Greenway Trail Environments. Landscape Research 34: 83–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clancey, G. 2011. Crime Risk Assessments in New South Wales. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 17: 55–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, L., and M. Felson. 1979. Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review 44: 588–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P. 2008. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Western Australia: Planning for Sustainable Urban Futures. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning 3: 272–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P. 2016. Think Crime! Using Evidence, Theory and Crime Prevention Through Encironmental Design (CPTED) for Planning Safer Cities. Perth: Praxis Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P., D. Hillier, and G. Prescott. 2001. Crime and the Design of Residential Property—Exploring the Perceptions of Planning Professionals, Burglars and Other Users: Part 2. Property Management 19: 222–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P., D. Hillier, and G. Prescott. 2002a. Criminogenic Associations and Characteristic British Housing Designs. International Planning Studies 7: 119–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P., and T. Love. 2015. A Review and Current Status of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). CPL Bibliography 30: 393–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P., G. Saville, and D. Hillier. 2005. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED): A Review and Modern Bibliography. Property Management 23: 328–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P., and M. Tarca. 2016. Exploring Housing Maintenance and Vacancy in Western Australia: Perceptions of Crime and Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). Property Management 34 (3): 199–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P., J. Waters, and R. Neale. 2002b. A Virtual Reality Approach to Personal Safety and the Design of Built Environment Facilities. In 18th Annual ARCOM Conference, 2–4 September, vol. 2, ed. D. Greenwood, 461–473. Northumbria: Association of Researchers in Construction Management.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P.M., R.H. Neale, J. Whitaker, and D. Hillier. 2003. Managing Crime and the Fear of Crime at Railway Stations. A Case Study in South Wales (UK). International Journal of Transport Management 1: 121–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P.M., R.H. Neale, J. Whitaker, and D. Hillier. 2004. Tackling Crime and Fear of Crime While Waiting at Britain’s Railway Stations. Journal of Public Transportation 7: 23–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P.M. 2014. Think Crime! Using Evidence, Theory and Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) for Safer Cities. Perth: Praxis Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craik, K.H. 1971. The Assessment of Places. In Advances in Psychological Assessment, vol. 2, ed. P. McReynolds, 40–62. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cromwell, P.F., J.N. Olson, and D.A.W. Avary. 1991. Breaking and entering: An ethnographic analysis of burglary. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowe, T.D. 2000. Crime prevention through environmental design: Applications of architectural design and space management concepts. Oxford: Butterworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deadman, D. 2003. Forecasting Residential Burglary. International Journal of Forecasting 19: 551–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Du Plessis, C. 1999. The Links between Crime Prevention and Sustainable Development. Open House International 24: 33–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubourg, R., J. Hamed, and J. Thorns. 2005. The economic and social costs of crime against individuals and households 2003/04. London: Home Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunston, P.S., L.L. Arns, J.D. Mcglothlin, G.C. Lasker, and A.G. Kushner. 2011. An Immersive Virtual Reality Mock-Up for Design Review of Hospital Patient Rooms. In Collaborative Design in Virtual Environments, ed. X. Wang, and J.J.-H. Tsai, 167–176. Dordrecht: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Eastman, C., Paul Teicholz, Rafael Sacks, and K. Liston. 2011. BIM Handbook: A Guide to Building Information Modeling for Owners, Managers, Designers, Engineers and Contractors, 2nd ed. Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebert, L.C., T.T. Nguyen, R. Breitbeck, M. Braun, M.J. Thali, and S. Ross. 2014. The Forensic Holodeck: An Immersive Display for Forensic Crime Scene Reconstructions. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology 10: 623–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, M. 2013. Violent Crime Costs the UK Economy £124 Billion, Report Suggests. The Telegraph. April 24th. Accessed online on 13th December 2017 at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/10013830/Violent-crime-costs-the-UK-economy-124-billion-report-suggests.html.

  • Farrell, G., N. Tilley, and A. Tseloni. 2014. Why the Crime Drop? Crime and Justice 43: 421–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Bureau of Investigations. (2011). Uniform Crime Report: Crime in the United States, 2010Burglary. Washington, DC.

  • Fisher, B.A.J. 2005. Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation, 7th ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, B.S., and J.L. Nasar. 1992. Fear of Crime in Relation to Three Exterior Site Features. Environment and Behavior 24: 35–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. 1849. Moral and Educational Statistics of England and Wales. Journal of the Statistical Society of London 12: 189–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forester, J. 1999. The deliberative practitioner: Encouraging participatory planning processes. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaber, J. 2007. Simulating Planning: SimCity as a Pedagogical Tool. Journal of Planning Education and Research 27: 113–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gehl, J. 2011. Life between buildings: Using public space. Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghomeshi, M., and M.M. Jusan. 2013. Investigating Different Aesthetic Preferences Between Architects and Non-architects in Residential Façade Designs. Indoor and Built Environment 22: 952–964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, J.J. 1979. The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glasson, J., and P. Cozens. 2011. Making Communities Safer from Crime: An Undervalued Element in Impact Assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 31: 25–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grabosky, P.N. 1995. Fear of crime and fear reduction strategies. Canberra: Canberra ACT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, D., Stephen Lockley, Oliver Jones, and Paul Jones. 2011. The Efficacy of Realistic Virtual Environments in Capturing User Experience of Buildings. CIB W78-W102 2011: International conference, 26–28 October. Paris: Sophia Antipolis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guerry, A.-M. 1833. Essai sur la statistique morale de la France: Crochard.

  • Hanyu, K. 1997. Visual Properties and Affective Appraisals in Residential Areas After Dark. Journal of Environmental Psychology 17: 301–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanyu, K. 2000. Visual Properties and Affective Appraisals in Residential Areas in Daylight. Journal of Environmental Psychology 20: 273–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heft, H., and J.L. Nasar. 2000. Evaluating Environmental Scenes Using Dynamic Versus Static Displays. Environment and Behavior 32: 301–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hensworth, S. 2011. Building Information Modeling and Security Design. The Australian Building Services Journal 2: 44–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herzog, T.R., and J.A. Flynn-Smith. 2001. Preference and Perceived Danger as a Function of the Perceived Curvature, Length, and Width of Urban Alleys. Environment and Behavior 33: 653–666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heydarian, A., J.P. Carneiro, D. Gerber, B. Becerik-Gerber, T. Hayes, and W. Wood. 2015. Immersive Virtual Environments Versus Physical Built Environments: A Benchmarking Study for Building Design and User-Built Environment Explorations. Automation in Construction 54: 116–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Houtkamp, J.M., and A. Toet. 2012. Who's afraid of virtual darkness: Affective appraisal of night-time virtual environments. In Digital landscape architecture 2011/2012: Geodesign and teaching, 508–515. Offenbach: Wichmann Verlag.

  • Howell, I., and B. Batcheler. 2005. Building Information Modeling Two Years Later–Huge Potential, Some Success and Several Limitations.

  • Huang, S.C.L. 2004. An Exploratory Approach for Using Videos to Represent Dynamic Environments. Landscape Research 29: 205–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J., and M. Stafford. 2009. Public Health and Fear of Crime: A Prospective Cohort Study. The British Journal of Criminology 49: 832–847.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, S.D., and K.J. Bowers. 2010. Permeability and Burglary Risk: Are Cul-de-Sacs Safer? Journal of Quantitative Criminology 26: 89–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jung, Y., and M. Joo. 2011. Building Information Modelling (BIM) Framework for Practical Implementation. Automation in Construction 20: 126–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knights, B., T. Pascoe, and A. Henchley. 2002. Sustainability and Crime: Managing and Recognising the Drivers of Crime and Security. Garston: Building Research Establishment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H., J.-K. Lee, S. Park, and I. Kim. 2016. Translating Building Legislation into a Computer-Executable Format for Evaluating Building Permit Requirements. Automation in Construction, 71, Part 1: 49–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz, W.E., M. Bicher, and G.X. Wurzer. 2015. Adjacency in Hospital Planning. IFAC-PapersOnLine 48: 862–867.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lottier, S. 1938. Distribution of Criminal Offenses in Sectional Regions. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 1931–1951 (29): 329–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, K. 1960. The image of the city, vol. 11. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maguire, M. 1997. Crime Statistics, Patterns and Trends: Changing Perceptions and Their Implications. The Oxford Handbook of Criminology 2: 135–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malsane, S., J. Matthews, S. Lockley, P.E.D. Love, and D. Greenwood. 2015. Development of an Object Model for Automated Compliance Checking. Automation in Construction 49: 51–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mawby, R.I. 2007. Crime, Place and Explaining Rural Hotspots. International Journal of Rural Crime 1: 21–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayhew, H. 1862. London labour and the London poor: Those that will not work: Comprising prostitutes, thieves, swindlers, beggars: With introductory essay on the agencies at present in operation in the metropolis for the suppression of vice and crime. Extra volume. Bohn: Griffin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayhew, P., and G. Adkins. 2003. Counting the Costs of Crime in Australia. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCollister, K.E., M.T. French, and H. Fang. 2010. The Cost of Crime to Society: New Crime-Specific Estimates for Policy and Program Evaluation. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 108: 98–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKechnie, G.E. 1977. Simulation Techniques in Environmental Psychology. In Perspectives on environment and behavior: Theory, research and applications, ed. D. Stokols, 169–189. New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Meehan, M., B. Insko, M. Whitton, P. Frederick, and J. Brooks. 2002. Physiological Measures of Presence in Stressful Virtual Environments. ACM Transactions on Graphics 21: 645–652.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meerkat Gaming. (2016). Klepto. In Meerkat gaming.

  • Mignard, C., and C. Nicolle. 2014. Merging BIM and GIS Using Ontologies Application to Urban Facility Management in ACTIVe3D. Computers in Industry 65: 1276–1290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mikropoulos, T.A., and A. Natsis. 2011. Educational Virtual Environments: A Ten-Year Review of Empirical Research (1999–2009). Computers and Education 56: 769–780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mirrlees-Black, C., and J. Allen. 1998. Concern about crime: Findings from the 1998 British crime survey: Great Britain. England: Home Office, Research, Development and Statistics Directorate London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, S., and J.P. Shepherd. 2006. The Cost of Fear: Shadow Pricing the Intangible Costs of Crime. Applied Economics 38: 293–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, F. 2001. Repeat Burglary in a Perth Suburb: Indicator of Short-Term or Long-Term Risk? In Crime prevention studies, vol. 12, ed. K.A.K.P. Farrell, 83–188. Monsey: Criminal Justice Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, P. 1999. Visual Ecologies, Optic Flow and VR Panoramas: Some Notes. In (Vol. 2004). Sydney.

  • Murray, S. 2005. High Art/Low Life: The Art of Playing Grand Theft Auto. PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art 27: 91–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasar, J.L. 2008. Assessing Perceptions of Environments for Active Living. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 34: 357–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nasar, J.L., C. Holloman, and D. Abdulkarim. 2015. Street Characteristics to Encourage Children to Walk. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 72: 62–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nee, C., and A. Meenaghan. 2006. Expert Decision Making in Burglars. The British Journal of Criminology 46: 935–949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nee, C., and M. Taylor. 2000. Examining Burglars’ Target Selection: Interview, Experiment or Ethnomethodology? Psychology, Crime and Law 6: 45–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nee, C., M. White, K. Woolford, T. Pascu, L. Barker, and L. Wainwright. 2015. ‘New Methods for Examining Expertise in Burglaring Natural and Simulated Environments: Preliminary Findings’. Psychology, Crime and Law 21: 507–513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, O. 1972. Defensible space: Crime prevention through urban design. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newton, S., Russell Lowe, and P.X.W. Zou. 2010. Learning and Teaching Domestic Construction Competence Using Serious Video Game Technology. In Koji Makanae, N. Yabuki and K. Kashiyama (Eds.), 10th international conference on construction applications of virtual reality, November 45, 2010 (pp. 189–198). Sendai, Miyagi.

  • Nicholas, S., D. Povey, A. Walker, and C. Kershaw. 2005. Crime in England and wales 2004/2005. London.

  • Orland, B. 1993. Synthetic Landscapes. In Environmental simulation: Research and policy issues, ed. R.W. Marans, and D. Stokols, 213–250. Boston, MA: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Park, A.J., T.W. Calvert, P.L. Brantingham, and P.J. Brantingham. 2008. The Use of Virtual and Mixed Reality Environments for Urban Behavioural Studies. PsychNology Journal 6: 119–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Park, A.J., E. Hwang, V. Spicer, C. Cheng, P.L. Brantingham, and A. Sixsmith. 2011. Testing Elderly People’s Fear of Crime Using a Virtual Environment. In 2011 European intelligence and security informatics conference (pp. 63–69).

  • Park, A. J., V. Spicer, M. Guterres, P.L. Brantingham, and G. Jenion. 2010. Testing Perception of Crime in a Virtual Environment. In 2010 IEEE international conference on intelligence and security informatics (pp. 7–12).

  • Park, R.E. 1925. Community Organization and Juvenile Delinquency. The City, 99–112.

  • Patacas, J., Nashwan Dawood, Vladimir Vukovic, and Mohamad Kassem. 2015. BIM for Facilities Management: Evaluating BIM Standards in Asset Register Creation and Service Life Planning. Journal of Information Technology in Construction 20: 313–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portland State University. Criminology and Criminal Justice Senior Capstone. (2010). Prevention of Residential Burglary: A Review of the Literature (Vol. Paper 3).

  • Poyner, B. 1983. Design against crime: Beyond defensible space. Canada: Butterworths Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Purcell, A.T., and J.L. Nasar. 1992. Experiencing Other People’s Houses: A Model of Similarities and Differences in Environmental Experience. Journal of Environmental Psychology 12: 199–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyle, G.F., and E.W. Hanten. 1974. The Spatial Dynamics of Crime. University of Chicago, Dept. of Geography.

  • Quetelet, A. 1842. A treatise on man and the development of his faculties. Edinburgh: Chambers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robles, R.M.M., and A. Al-Attili. 2015. Virtual Environments as an Experimental Tool for Studies of Surveillance. Blucher Design Proceedings 2: 355–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rockstar Games. (2004). Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. In Grand Theft Auto. Rockstar Games: New York.

  • Rundle, A.G., M.D.M. Bader, C.A. Richards, K.M. Neckerman, and J.O. Teitler. 2011. Using Google Street View to Audit Neighborhood Environments. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 40: 94–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, R.J., and S.W. Raudenbush. 1999. Systematic Social Observation of Public Spaces: A New Look at Disorder in Urban Neighborhoods. American Journal of Sociology 105: 603–651.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid, C.F. 1960. Urban Crime Areas: Part I. American Sociological Review, 527–542.

  • Sebastian, R. 2010. Integrated Design and Engineering Using Building Information Modelling: A Pilot Project of Small-Scale Housing Development in The Netherlands. Architectural Engineering and Design Management 6: 103–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, K.T., and R. Gifford. 1994. Residents’ and Burglars’ Assessment of Burglary Risk from Defensible Space Cues. Journal of Environmental Psychology 14: 177–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. G., P. Jorna, J. Sweeny, and G. Fuller. 2014. Counting the Costs of Crime in Australia: A 2011 Estimate. Canberra.

  • Smith, S.P., and T. Carter. 2010. A Virtual Environment to Test Police and Public Awareness of Anti-Social Behaviour Indicators. International Journal of Police Science and Management 12: 548–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stamps, A.E. 2000. Psychology and the Aesthetics of the Built Environment. Boston: Kluwer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Stamps, A.E. 2010. Use of Static and Dynamic Media to Simulate Environments: A Meta-Analysis. Perceptual and Motor Skills 111: 355–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stamps, A.E., and J.L. Nasar. 1997. Design Review and Public Preferences: Effects of Geographical Location, Sensation Seeking, and Architectural Styles. Journal of Environmental Psychology 17: 11–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stamps, A.E., and S. Smith. 2002. Environmental Enclosure in Urban Settings. Environment and Behavior 34: 781–794.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The Economist. (2014). Why Video Games are so Expensive to Develop.

  • Toet, A., and M.G. van Schaik. 2012. Effects of Signals of Disorder on Fear of Crime in Real and Virtual Environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology 32: 260–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tseloni, A., R. Thompson, L. Grove, N. Tilley, and G. Farrell. 2017. The Effectiveness of Burglary Security Devices. Security Journal 30: 646–664.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tutt, D., and C. Harty. 2013. Journeys Through the CAVE: The Use of 3D Immersive Environments for Client Engagement Practices in Hospital Design. In 29th annual ARCOM conference, 2–4 September, ed. S.D. Smith, and D.D. Ahiaga-Dagbui, 111–121. Reading: Association of Researchers in Construction Management.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vandeviver, C. 2014. Applying Google Maps and Google Street View in criminological research. Crime Science 3: 13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Gelder, J., C. Nee, M. Otte, I. van Sintemaartensdijk, A. Demetriou, and J. van Prooijen. 2017. Virtual Burglary: Exploring the Potential of Virtual Reality to Study Burglary in Action. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 54 (1): 29–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427816663997.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vollaard, B., and J.C. van Ours. 2011. Does Regulation of Built-in Security Reduce Crime? Evidence from a Natural Experiment*. The Economic Journal 121: 485–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wan, A., A. Platten, and T. Briggs. 2013. Study of Safety Auditors’ Views on the Use of BIM for Safety in Hong Kong. International Journal of 3D Information Modelling 2: 11–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, B., Haijiang Li, Yacine Rezgui, Alex Bradley, and H.N. Ong. 2014. BIM Based Virtual Environment for Fire Emergency Evacuation. The Scientific World Journal.

  • Waters, J., R. Neale, S. Hutson, and K. Mears. 2005. A Perceptual Assessment of Personal Safety in Relation to University Campus Facilities. In 21st annual ARCOM conference, 7–9 September 2005, vol. 1, ed. F. Khosrowshahi, 365–374. London: University of London: Association of Researchers in Construction Management.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisburd, D., and C. Lum. 2005. The Diffusion of Computerized Crime Mapping in Policing: Linking Research and Practice. Police Practice and Research 6: 419–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker, J., R.H.A. Neale, and P.M. Cozens. 2004. Use of ‘VR Walkthrough Panorama’ Technology to Assess Public Perceptions of Personal Safety on Railway Stations. In The cooperative research centre (CRC) for construction innovation clients driving innovation international conference (pp. 1471–4175). Brisbane, NSW.

  • Whyte, W. H. (1980). The social life of small urban spaces. Washington, D.C.: Washington, D.C. : Conservation Foundation.

  • Willemsen, P., and A.A. Gooch. 2002. Perceived egocentric distances in real, image-based, and traditional virtual environments. In Proceedings of the IEEE virtual reality 2002 (VR’02).

  • Winchester, S., and H. Jackson. 1982. Residential burglary: The limits of prevention. London: HM Stationary Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, R., and R.H. Logie. 1988. How Young House Burglars Choose Targets. The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 27: 92–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wurzer, G. 2012. In-Process Agent Simulation for Early Stages of Hospital Planning. IFAC Proceedings Volumes 45: 358–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yung, P., and X. Wang. 2014. A 6D CAD Model for the Automatic Assessment of Building Sustainability. International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems 11: 131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul Cozens.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Cozens, P., McLeod, S. & Matthews, J. Visual representations in crime prevention: exploring the use of building information modelling (BIM) to investigate burglary and crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). Crime Prev Community Saf 20, 63–83 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41300-018-0039-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41300-018-0039-6

Keywords

Navigation