Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya

Abstract

The nature of inter-group relations among prehistoric hunter-gatherers remains disputed, with arguments in favour and against the existence of warfare before the development of sedentary societies1,2. Here we report on a case of inter-group violence towards a group of hunter-gatherers from Nataruk, west of Lake Turkana, which during the late Pleistocene/early Holocene period extended about 30 km beyond its present-day shore3. Ten of the twelve articulated skeletons found at Nataruk show evidence of having died violently at the edge of a lagoon, into which some of the bodies fell. The remains from Nataruk are unique, preserved by the particular conditions of the lagoon with no evidence of deliberate burial. They offer a rare glimpse into the life and death of past foraging people, and evidence that warfare was part of the repertoire of inter-group relations among prehistoric hunter-gatherers.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Prices vary by article type

from$1.95

to$39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: Spatial distribution of the human skeletons discovered at the site of Nataruk.
Figure 2: Schematic drawings illustrating the position of the 12 articulated skeletons from Nataruk.
Figure 3: Lithics found in direct association with human remains at Nataruk.

References

  1. Wrangham, R. W. & Glowacki, L. Intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and war in nomadic hunter-gatherers: evaluating the chimpanzee model. Hum. Nat. 23, 5–29 (2012)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Fry, D. P. & Söderberg, P. Lethal aggression in mobile forager bands and implications for the origins of war. Science 341, 270–273 (2013)

    Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Garcin, Y. et al. Late Pleistocene–Holocene rise and collapse of Lake Suguta, northern Kenya Rift. Quat. Sci. Rev. 28, 911–925 (2009)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  4. Wilson, M. L. & Wrangham, R. W. Intergroup relations in chimpanzees. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 32, 363–392 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Wilson, M. L. et al. Lethal aggression in Pan is better explained by adaptive strategies than human impacts. Nature 513, 414–417 (2014)

    Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Bowles, S. Did warfare among ancestral hunter-gatherers affect the evolution of human social behaviors? Science 324, 1293–1298 (2009)

    Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Kelly, R. C. The evolution of lethal intergroup violence. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102, 15294–15298 (2005)

    Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Thorpe, I. J. N. inWarfare, Violence and Slavery in Prehistory (eds Parker Pearson, M. & Thorpe, I. J. N. ) 1–18 (British Archaeological Reports, 2005)

  9. Burch, E. S. Alliance and Conflict: The World System of the Inupiaq Eskimos (Univ. Nebraska Press, 2005)

  10. Ember, C. R. Myths about hunter-gatherers. Ethnology 17, 439–448 (1978)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Fry, D. P. Beyond War: The Human Potential for Peace. (Westview, 2007)

  12. Goldschmidt, W. in The Social Dynamics of Peace and Conflict (eds Rubenstein, R. A. & Foster, M. L. ) 47–65 (Westview, 1988)

  13. Hobhouse, L. T., Wheeler, G. C. & Ginsberg, M. The Material Culture and Social Institutions of the Simpler People (Chapman & Hall, 1915)

  14. Leavitt, G. C. The frequency of warfare: an evolutionary perspective. Sociol. Inq. 47, 49–58 (1977)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Otterbein, K. F. How War Began (Texas A&M Univ. Press, 2004)

  16. Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. The Andaman Islanders: A Study in Social Anthropology (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1922)

  17. Schapera, I. The Khoisan peoples of South Africa (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1930)

  18. Wright, Q. A Study of War (Univ. Chicago Press, 1942)

  19. Keely, L. H. War before Civilization (Oxford Univ. Press, 1996)

  20. Wendorf, F. in The Prehistory of Nubia (ed. Wendorf, F. ) Vol. 2, 954–1040 (Southern Methodist Univ. Press, 1968)

    Google Scholar 

  21. Robbins, L. H. The Lothagam Site (Michigan State Univ., 1974)

  22. Robbins, L. H. Lake Turkana archaeology: the Holocene. Ethnohistory 53, 71–93 (2006)

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  23. Beyin, A. Recent archaeological survey and excavation around the Greater Kalakol area, West Side of Lake Turkana: Preliminary Findings. Nyame Akuma 75, 40–50 (2011)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  24. Robbins, L. H. Bone artefacts from the Lake Rudolf Basin, East Africa. Curr. Anthropol. 16, 632–633 (1975)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Barthelme, J. W. Fisher-Hunters and Neolithic Pastoralists in East Turkana, Kenya (British Archaeological Reports, 1985)

  26. Forman, S. L., Wright, D. K. & Bloszies, C. Variations in water level for Lake Turkana in the past 8500 years near Mt. Porr, Kenya and the transition from the African Humid Period to Holocene aridity. Quat. Sci. Rev. 97, 84–101 (2014)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  27. Angel, J. L., Phenice, T. W., Robbins, L. H. & Lynch, M. M. Late Stone Age Fishermen of Lothagam, Kenya (Michigan State Univ., 1980)

  28. Sauer, N. J. in Forensic Osteology (ed. Reichs, K. J. ) 321–332 (Charles C. Thomas, 1998)

  29. Smith, M. O. Beyond palisades: the nature and frequency of late prehistoric deliberate violent trauma in the Chickamauga reservoir of east Tennessee. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 121, 303–318 (2003)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Broadbent, B. H. & Golden, W. H. Bolton Standards of Dentofacial Developmental Growth (CV Mosby, 1975)

  31. Smith, B. H. in Advances in Dental Anthropology (eds Kelley, M. A. & Larsen, C. S. ) 143–168 (Wiley-Liss, 1991)

  32. Scheuer, L. & Black, S. M. Developmental Juvenile Osteology (Academic, 2000)

  33. Bass, W. M. Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual (Missouri Archaeological Society, 1995)

  34. Buikstra, J. E. & Ubelaker, D. H. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Arkansas Archaeological Survey, 1994)

  35. Brooks, S. & Suchey, J. M. Skeletal age determination based on the os pubis: a comparison of the Acsádi-Nemeskéri and Suchey-Brooks methods. Hum. Evol. 5, 227–238 (1990)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Brothwell, D. R. Digging Up Bones (Oxford Univ. Press, 1981)

  37. I˙s¸can, M. Y., Loth, S. R. & Wright, R. K. Metamorphosis at the sternal rib end: a new method to estimate age at death in white males. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 65, 147–156 (1984)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. I˙s¸can, M. Y., Loth, S. R. & Wright, R. K. Age estimation from the rib by phase analysis: white females. J. Forensic Sci. 30, 853–863 (1985)

    Google Scholar 

  39. Brink, O., Vesterby, A. & Jensen, J. Pattern of injuries due to interpersonal violence. Injury 29, 705–709 (1998)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Jurmain, R. et al. Paleoepidemiological patterns of interpersonal aggression in a prehistoric central California population from CA-ALA-329. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 139, 462–473 (2009)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Kjaerulff, H. et al.The Copenhagen Study Group. Injuries due to deliberate violence in areas of Denmark. III. Lesions. Forensic Sci. 41, 169–180 (1989)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Martin, D. L. & Frayer, T. Troubled Times: Osteological and Anthropological Evidence of Violence (Gordon and Breach, 1997)

  43. Shepherd, J. P., Shapland, M., Pearce, N. X. & Scully, C. Pattern, severity and aetiology of injuries in victims of assault. J. R. Soc. Med. 83, 75–78 (1990)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Quatrehomme, G. & I˙s¸can, M. Y. Postmortem skeletal lesions. Forensic Sci. Int. 89, 155–165 (1997)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Angel, J. L. Patterns of fracture from Neolithic to modern times. Anthropol. Kozlemenyek 18, 9–18 (1974)

    Google Scholar 

  46. Brickley, M. & Smith, M. Culturally determined patterns of violence: biological anthropological investigations at a historic urban cemetery. Am. Anthropol. 108, 163–177 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Fibiger, L., Ahlström, T., Bennike, P. & Schulting, R. J. Patterns of violence-related skull trauma in Neolithic southern Scandinavia. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 150, 190–202 (2013)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Levin, L. et al. Incidence and severity of maxillofacial injuries during the Second Lebanon War among Israeli soldiers and civilians. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 66, 1630–1633 (2008)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Steadman, D. W. Warfare related trauma at Orendorf, a middle Mississippian site in west-central Illinois. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 136, 51–64 (2008)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Owsley, D. W., Berryman, H. E. & Bass, W. M. Demographic and osteological evidence for warfare at the Larson site, South Dakota. Plains Anthropological Memoirs 13, 119–131 (1977)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Walker, P. L. in Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past (eds Martin, D. & Frayer, D. W.) 145–180 (Gordon and Breach, 1997)

    Google Scholar 

  52. Berryman, H. E & Haun, S. J. Applying forensic techniques to interpret cranial fracture patterns in an archaeological specimen. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 6, 2–9 (1996)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Berryman, H. E. & Symes, S. A. in Forensic Osteology (ed. Reichs, K. J.) 333–352 (Charles C. Thomas, 1998)

    Google Scholar 

  54. Galloway, A. in Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma (ed. Galloway, A.) 81–112 (Charles C. Thomas, 1999)

    Google Scholar 

  55. Kimmerle, E. H. & Baraybar, J. P. Skeletal Trauma: Identification of Injuries Resulting from Human Rights Abuse and Armed Conflict (Taylor & Francis, 2008)

  56. Knüsel, C. J. in Warfare, Violence and Slavery in Prehistory (eds Parker Pearson, M. & Thorpe, I. J. N. ) 49–65 (British Archaeological Reports, 2005)

  57. Lovell, N. C. Trauma analysis in paleopathology. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 104, 139–170 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Ortner, D. in Skeletal Trauma: Identification of Injuries Resulting from Human Rights Abuse and Armed Conflict (eds Kimmerle, E. H. & Baraybar, J. P. ) 21–86 (CRC, 2008)

  59. Passalacqua, N. V. & Fenton, T. W. in A Companion to Forensic Anthropology (ed. Dirkmat, D. C. ) 400–411 (Blackwell, 2012)

  60. Roberts, C. in Human Paleopathology: Current Synthesis and Future Options (eds Ortner, D. & Aufderheide, A. C. ) 225–240 (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991)

  61. Rodríguez-Martín, C. in Forensic Anthropology and Medicine (eds Schmitt, A. et al.) 197–221 (Humana, 2006)

  62. Wheatley, B. P. Perimortem or postmortem bone fractures? An experimental study of fracture patterns in deer femora. J. Forensic Sci. 53, 69–72 (2008)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Letourneux, C. & Petillon, J. Hunting lesions caused by osseous projectile points: experimental results and archaeological implications. J. Archaeol. Sci. 35, 2849–2862 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Fallon, S. J., Fifield, L. K. & Chappell, J. M. The next chapter in radiocarbon dating at the Australian National University: status report on the single stage accelerator mass spectrometry. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. B 268, 898–901 (2010)

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Bronk Ramsey, C., Scott, E. M. & van der Plicht, J. Calibration for archaeological and environmental terrestrial samples in the time range 26–50 ka cal BP. Radiocarbon 55, 2021–2027 (2013)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Reimer, P. et al. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55, 1869–1887 (2013)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Bøtter-Jensen, L. Luminescence techniques: instrumentation and methods. Radiat. Meas. 27, 749–768 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Murray, A. S. & Wintle, A. G. Luminescence dating of quartz using an improved single-aliquot regenerative-dose protocol. Radiat. Meas. 32, 57–73 (2000)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Wintle, A. G. & Murray, A. S. A review of quartz optically stimulated luminescence characteristics and their relevance in single-aliquot regeneration dating protocols. Radiat. Meas. 41, 369–391 (2006)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Banerjee, D., Murray, A. S., Bøtter-Jensen, L. & Lang, A. Equivalent dose estimation using a single aliquot of polymineral fine grains. Radiat. Meas. 33, 73–94 (2001)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Wallinga, J., Murray, A. S. & Bøtter-Jensen, L. Measurement of the dose in quartz in the presence of feldspar contamination. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 101, 367–370 (2002)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Hansen, V., Murray, A. S., Buylaert, J. P., Yeo, E. Y. & Thomsen, K. J. A new irradiated quartz for beta source calibration. Radiat. Measurem. 81, 123–127 (2015)

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Duller, G. A. T. The Analyst software package for luminescence data: overview and recent improvements. Anc. TL 33, 35–42 (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  74. Galbraith, R. F., Roberts, R. G., Laslett, G. M., Yoshida, H. & Olley, J. M. Optical dating of single and multiple grains of quartz from Jinmium Rock Shelter, northern Australia: part I, experimental design and statistical methods. Archaeometry 41, 339–364 (1999)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Sutton, S. R. & Zimmermann, D. W. Thermoluminescence dating: radioactivity in quartz. Archaeometry 20, 67–69 (1978)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Mejdahl, V. Thermoluminescence dating: beta-dose attenuation in quartz grains. Archaeometry 21, 61–72 (1979)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Grün, R. & Fenton, C. Internal dose rates of quartz grains separated from fault gouge. Anc. TL 29, 26–28 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  78. De Corte, F., Vandenberghe, D., Buylaert, J. P., Van den Haute, P. & Kucera, J. Relative and k0-standardized INAA to assess the internal (Th, U) radiation dose rate in the ‘quartz coarse-grain protocol’ for OSL dating of sediments: Unexpected observations. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A 564, 743–751 (2006)

    Article  ADS  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Vandenberghe, D., De Corte, F., Buylaert, J. P., Kucera, J. & Van den Haute, P. On the internal radioactivity in quartz. Radiat. Meas. 43, 771–775 (2008)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Rees-Jones, J. & Tite, M. S. Optical dating results for British archaeological sediments. Archaeometry 39, 177–187 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Guerin, G., Mercier, N. & Adamiec, G. Dose-rate conversion factors: update. Anc. TL 29, 5–8 (2011)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Zimmerman, D. W. Thermoluminescent dating using fine grains from pottery. Archaeometry 13, 29–52 (1971)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Prescott, J. R. & Hutton, J. T. Cosmic ray contributions to dose rates for luminescence and ESR dating: large depths and long-term time variations. Radiat. Meas. 23, 497–500 (1994)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Grün, R., Eggins, S., Kinsley, L., Mosely, H. & Sambridge, M. Laser ablation U-series analysis of fossil bones and teeth. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 416, 150–167 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Sambridge, M., Grün, R. & Eggins, S. U-series dating of bone in an open system: the diffusion-adsorption-decay model. Quat. Geochronol. 9, 42–53 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Dietze, M. et al. The abanico plot: visualizing chronometric data with individual standard errors. Quat. Geochronol. (in the press)

  87. Kreutzer, S. et al. Introducing an R package for luminescence dating analysis. Anc. TL 30, 1–8 (2012)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. R Development Core Team R. A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. http://CRAN.R-project.org

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the Office of the President of Kenya, the Turkana Province government, and the National Museums of Kenya for permission to conduct research (NCST/5/002/R/419), the Turkana people of Locher Akwan, Lokwar Ankhaleso, Lotukumo, Eporon, and Natome for permission to work in their area and assistance, the Turkana Basin Institute for logistical and laboratory support, the British Institute in Eastern Africa, R. Leakey, M. Leakey, and L. Martin for support and advice, the staff at the TBI Turkwell facility, especially K. Onesmus Ngela, and the 2012 IN-AFRICA field team (E. Murungi, J. Oltimbao, J. Lokuruka, D. Lomuria, M. Lokinei, J. Ekeno, J. Erupe, J. Lopua, R. Ng’irotin, P. Amuk, P. Atadeit, M. Emusugut, F. Lowan, R. Ng’ichila, S. Eperon, P. Eperon, T. Echulum), especially P. Ebeya who found the site. We thank S. Black and C. Cunningham for advice on the foetal remains, Beta Analytic for advice and assistance, and F. Lahr for assistance with imaging and illustrations. Funding was provided by a European Research Council Advanced Award to M.M.L. (IN-AFRICA, ERC 295907), the Newby Trust, and the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Contributions

M.M.L. directed the study and fieldwork; M.M.L., F.R., A.M., A.W., J.E.E., J.L., H.M., D.M.M., A.Mu., B.C., H.A., and R.A.F. participated in the fieldwork and excavations; M.M.L., F.R., J.E.E., J.L., H.M., and D.M.M. excavated the Nataruk skeletons; M.M.L., F.R., R.K.P., A.W., A.L., and K.C. cleaned, prepared, and reconstructed the fossils at the Turkana Basin Institute research laboratories; M.M.L. and R.K.P. analysed and described the lesions and pathologies; M.M.L. prepared the illustrations of Fig. 2 and illustration and photographs of Extended Data Figs 4,5,6,7; A.W. prepared the archaeological illustrations and samples for radiocarbon dating; A.M. prepared the three-dimensional model of KNM-WT 71264 in Supplementary Figure 1; M.M.L., A.W., F.R., and F.C. performed the fauna identification; A.W. and J.M.M.F. analysed the lithics following protocols developed by R.A.F., and A.W. wrote the archaeology section of the Supplementary Information; A.V.B. prepared the GIS maps; H.A., R.A.F., M.M.L., and A.M. performed the geomorphological study; R.W. did radiocarbon dating; J.-L.S. did the OSL date; R.G. examined all materials at the Turkana Basin Institute for dating, and did the uranium-series dates; M.M.L. wrote the paper, with contributions from R.A.F., R.G., R.K.P., A.W., E.M., R.W., and J.-L.S.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to M. Mirazón Lahr or R. A. Foley.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Additional information

The human remains from the site of Nataruk are curated for the National Museums of Kenya (KNM-WT 71251-71277) at the Turkwel Station of the Turkana Basin Institute, Kenya.

Extended data figures and tables

Extended Data Figure 1 Location of Nataruk and distribution of finds within the site.

a, Geographical relation of the site of Nataruk to other similarly dated sites in the area and to the reconstructed palaeo-shorelines of Lake Turkana at different extents during the early Holocene transgression (440 m above sea level (a.s.l.), 430 m a.s.l., 420 m a.s.l.), on the basis of SRTM 90 m DEM (version 4.1) (source: CGIAR-CSI, http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org); background image: hillshade based on SRTM 90 m DEM (version 4.1) (source: CGIAR-CSI, http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org). b, Distribution of finds (human, animal and archaeological remains) at Nataruk; background image: ArcGIS Online Basemap - World Imagery (version 2 October, 2014) (source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community).

Extended Data Figure 2 The site of Nataruk.

a, b, View of the Nataruk site with exposed cranium of KNM-WT 71264 as was first found. c, KNM-WT 71264 after excavation. d, Geomorphological setting of the site of Nataruk, showing pattern of drainage and the small geological fault to the east; background image: ArcGIS Online Basemap - World Imagery (version 2 October, 2014) (source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community). e, Elevation profile of the site of Nataruk showing the position of the ridge and northeast mounds. f, View of the lagoon carbonate nodules and shells. g, Example of human remains in the context of the lagoon sediments, illustrated by the left foot of KNM-WT 71255. Photographs by M.M.L.

Extended Data Figure 3 Dating of the site of Nataruk and graphic synthesis of OSL methodology used.

a, Modelled date (bp) for the sediments above skeletons KNM-WT 71251 and 71260, and the shells associated with skeletons KNM-WT 71251, 71254, 71258, 71264, 71274 showing the age and probability distributions. Sample source and association with human remains to the left of individual plots, with the two younger sediment samples from the surface above skeletons at the top, and the shell samples in direct association with human remains below. b, Distribution of estimated uranium-series ages × uranium (p.p.m.) for samples 3487 and 3513 (both from skeleton KNM-WT 71264) and 3514 (KNM-WT 71265). c, Average apparent uranium-series age (error bars indicate 1σ standard deviation) and 234U/238U ratios of all samples analysed (n = 17) (further information in Extended Data Table 3 and Supplementary Table 8). d, Example of a natural OSL decay curve featuring the integrated signal (in red) and the background counts (in green) obtained from a multigrain quartz aliquot. e, Example of a sensitivity corrected dose–response curve for the natural (in red) and regenerative-dose signals using a double exponential fitting procedure. f, Abanico plot featuring the distribution of multigrain quartz equivalent dose measurements and their associated data precision and error scatter86. The plot combines a radial plot (bivariate plot on the left side) with a histogram and kernel density estimate curve (univariate plots on the right side) using the default function tool developed within the package ‘Luminescence’87 for the statistical programming language ‘R’88. The 2σ dispersion range is shown in grey and the red polygon characterizes the 1σ frequency distribution of the primary data.

Extended Data Figure 4 Traumatic lesions on skeletons.

a, Skeleton KNM-WT 71251; b, skeleton KNM-WT 71253. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71251 include an embedded projectile on the left parietal bone, a perforating lesion on the right parietal bone, and possible depressed fractures on the left and right knees. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71253 include radiating fractures on the frontal bone, and perforating lesions on the third (?) and seventh cervical vertebrae. Red boxes indicate enlarged images of particular lesions; red arrows point to the lesions described in Supplementary Information 3.3.1 and 3.3.2; red dotted line in KNM-WT 71251 delineates the depressed region on the anterior aspect of the left proximal tibia. Photographs and drawings by M.M.L.

Extended Data Figure 5 Traumatic lesions on skeletons.

a, Skeleton KNM-WT 71254; c, skeleton KNM-WT 71256; b, fetal remains found within the body cavity of KNM-WT 71255. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71254 include a perforating lesion on the frontal bone, and linear perforations on the mandible and the right trapezoid. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71256 include perforating lesions on cervical and thoracic vertebrae, and fractures on the second and third right metacarpals. Metacarpal images show four views of the element to illustrate the extent of the fractures; inset of second metacarpal shows palmar view of lesion, insets of third metacarpal show palmar (a) and dorsal-lateral (b) fractures. Red boxes indicate enlarged images of particular lesions; red arrows point to the lesions described in Supplementary Information 3.3.3 and 3.3.5. Further information on KNM-WT 71255 and fetal remains is given in Supplementary Information 3.3.4. Photographs and drawings by M.M.L.

Extended Data Figure 6 Traumatic lesions on skeletons.

a, Skeleton KNM-WT 71257; b, skeleton KNM-WT 71259. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71257 include depressed fractures on the left parietal and multiple radiating fractures across the skull, with the mandible unaffected. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71259 include three fractures to ribs, including on two consecutive ribs, and possible depressed fractures to the right knee. Red boxes indicate enlarged images of particular lesions in KNM-WT 71259, including the unnatural position of the left foot; red arrows point to the lesions described in Supplementary Information 3.3.6 and 3.3.8; red dotted line in KNM-WT 71259 delineates the depressed region on the anterior aspect of the right distal femur. Photographs and drawings by M.M.L.

Extended Data Figure 7 Traumatic lesions on skeletons.

a, Skeleton KNM-WT 71263; c, skeleton KNM-WT 71264; b, skeleton KNM-WT 71265. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71263 include a linear perforating lesion, with associated depressed fracture on the frontal bone, and a perforation on the right temporal bone. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71264 include depressed fractures on the frontal and left parietal bones, and multiple radiating fractures across the skull, as well as a healed (?) perforating lesion on the frontal bone. Displayed lesions on KNM-WT 71265 include a depressed fracture on the frontal bone. Red boxes indicate enlarged images of particular lesions; red arrows point to the lesions described in Supplementary Information 3.3.10, 3.3.11 and 3.3.12; red dotted line in KNM-WT 71265 delineates what would have been the natural profile of the bone. Photographs and drawings by M.M.L.

Extended Data Table 1 Dates of sediments, shells and human remains from Nataruk
Extended Data Table 2 Chronological synthesis and uranium-series sample characterization

Related audio

Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

This file contains a Supplementary Discussion comprising: (1) description of the site, (2) description of the human remains, (3) description and discussion of the trauma, (4) description of the fauna, (5) description of the archaeology, and (6) description and discussion of the dated samples from Nataruk (see Contents on page 1 for more details). The file also contains Supplementary Tables 1-10 and additional references. (PDF 2905 kb)

Supplementary Figure 1

This file, which rotates, contains a 3D image of the cranium KNM-WT 71264. The individual shown sustained multiple major trauma to the anterior and left portions of the cranium, which are depressed and fractured in relation to the surrounding bones, and caused a radiating fracture across the occipital bone and the fracture of the right temporal bone. The 3D image was obtained through a surface optical scanner (HDI Advance, LMI3D); 3D pdf made in Geomagic Studio 12.0 Software. (PDF 15922 kb)

PowerPoint slides

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lahr, M., Rivera, F., Power, R. et al. Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya. Nature 529, 394–398 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16477

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16477

This article is cited by

Comments

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing