Active transport, independent mobility and territorial range among children residing in disadvantaged areas
Introduction
Regular physical activity during childhood and adolescence is beneficial for physical and mental health across the lifespan (Trost, 2005). However those living in neighbourhoods of low socioeconomic status (SES) (Brodersen et al., 2007, Ziviani et al., 2008) and those experiencing disadvantage at the family level (Woodfield et al., 2002, Lee and Cubbin, 2002) have been shown to participate in lower levels of physical activity compared with high SES children. Additionally, low SES children tend to engage less frequently in structured commercially-available programs, such as organised team sports, and tend to spend more of their leisure time at home compared to high SES children (Ziviani et al., 2008, The Smith Family, 2013). Active transport, such as walking or cycling to school and other destinations, may be a key source of habitual physical activity for all children (Tudor-Locke et al., 2001). Walking and cycling may be particularly important for socioeconomically disadvantaged youth, due to the low cost and accessibility of these activities (Humbert et al., 2006).
Children who engage in active transport alone or with other children rather than with their parents or other adults are considered to be independently mobile. More broadly, children׳s independent mobility refers to their freedom to move around their neighbourhood without adult accompaniment (Hillman et al., 1990). Children with greater independent mobility tend to spend more time walking, cycling and travelling by scooter, skateboard or rollerblades around their neighbourhood to reach places and have greater ‘territorial range’ allowing them to visit a broader range of destinations (Mackett et al., 2007). There has been little examination of children׳s territorial range in relation to the presence of appropriate walkable destinations such as parks or playgrounds within their neighbourhood. However, there is some evidence that the types of destination (e.g. friend׳s house, shops) perceived to be within walking or cycling distance from home are important for promoting adolescents׳ active transport (Giles-Corti et al., 2009).
A recent systematic review examined studies of children׳ active transport and/or independent mobility and their associations with physical activity (Schoeppe et al., 2013). In total, 27 out of 34 studies (79%) of active transport to school and physical activity levels reported positive associations between these variables (Schoeppe et al., 2013). Among those 34 studies one reported that for each additional day of active transport to school, there was more than a doubling of the odds of a child aged 8–15 years meeting physical activity recommendations on weekdays (Daly-Smith et al., 2011). However, none of the studies in that review examined whether a dose–response association (i.e. a direct association between a stimulus (dose) and a desired outcome (response)) existed between either the frequency or total duration of active school journeys made each week and children׳s overall physical activity levels (in this context, for example, the dose may be the number of active trips made per week while the outcome may be the total time spent being physically active). This research gap will be addressed by the current study. In addition, the systematic review described above (Schoeppe et al., 2013) identified only four studies that examined independent mobility and physical activity, but all reported positive associations between these variables (Mackett et al., 2007, Page et al., 2009, Wen et al., 2009, Floyd et al., 2011). The current study will contribute to knowledge on this under-researched topic.
When examining active transport and independent mobility among children who reside in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas, it is important to include those in rural as well as urban areas because residing in a rural area has been shown to be a risk factor for poor health (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2005, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). While most data on children׳s active transport have been gathered in urban rather than rural areas (Hume et al., 2009, Giles-Corti et al., 2011, Hinckson et al., 2011, Carver et al., 2010), one Australian study (Carver et al., 2012) reported higher rates of active transport and independent mobility on the school journey in urban areas compared with rural areas. However, there was no significant difference by location in children׳s independent mobility on the weekends. The disparities on the school journey were attributable in part to rural children being required to travel greater distances that were less conducive to active transport. In addition, free travel by school bus was provided in rural areas (Carver et al., 2012).
This study explored active transport to school, independent mobility on journeys to school and other local destinations, and their associations with physical activity among children residing in disadvantaged urban and rural areas. In addition, children׳s perceived accessibility of destinations within walking/cycling distance of home was examined in relation to how far they were allowed to roam without adult accompaniment (i.e. their territorial range).
Section snippets
Sample
The children in this study were originally recruited via their mothers׳ participation in a longitudinal study titled ‘Resilience for Eating and Activity Despite Inequality (READI)’, for which the baseline recruitment methods are described previously (Cleland et al., 2010, Ball et al., 2012). Briefly, women aged 18–45 years residing in 40 urban and 40 rural socioeconomically disadvantaged areas (ranked lowest based on a tertile split) were invited to participate in a postal survey on their
Data analyses
Analyses were conducted using SPSS v21 and Stata SE v12 for participants with valid survey and accelerometer data. Descriptive analyses were performed to examine travel modes to and from school (including comparison of modal choice to and from school), frequency and duration of active school journeys, independent mobility on journeys to school and local destinations, the number of destinations within perceived walking and cycling distance of home, and territorial range. Linear regression
Results
Survey and accelerometer data were analysed for 271 children. While 311 children had completed the survey, 20 children had chosen not to wear the accelerometer, and a further 20 did not record valid data for at least three weekdays. Among these 271 children, the mean age was 12.1 (SD 2.2) years; almost half (45%) were boys and 69% resided in rural areas. Despite being located in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas, all households except three had access to a car. The median distance travelled
Discussion
This study is among the first to examine active transport and independent mobility to school and other local destinations and their associations with physical activity, among school-aged children residing in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas. Additionally, because there is a paucity of data that explores children׳s territorial range in relation to accessible destinations, this paper makes an important contribution to the literature. Findings also provide further rationale for the public
Conclusions
This research provides evidence of the contribution of active transport to children׳s overall physical activity. Additionally, this study provides an important preliminary understanding of children׳s independent mobility on journeys to school and local destinations. However, further research that includes objective measures of distance to local amenities is required to explore factors that influence children׳s freedom to move around their neighbourhood independently, and in particular how far
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a Linkage Grant from the Australian Research Council (LP0990183), in partnership with the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (VicHealth), Australia. We gratefully acknowledge Dr. Michelle Jackson, Anne Griffiths and the team of research assistants who gathered the data, as well as all the school and families who participated in our study. Dr. Clare Hume is supported by a Postdoctoral Research Fellowship from the National Heart Foundation of Australia. Dr. Jenny
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