ReviewInfluence of conventional and recent extraction technologies on physicochemical properties of bioactive macromolecules from natural sources: A review
Introduction
It is no news that food provides health-promoting benefits by virtue of its socio-cultural, nutritive, vocational and aesthetic values, and also quenches the rumbling cry of a hungry stomach. Early notions of possible health promoting effects of food was heralded over 2500 years ago by the father of medicine, Hippocrates, in his famous quote “let food be thy medicine” (Hasler, 2002). However, active research in food-based bioactive compounds did not begin until around the 20th century (Hasler, 2002). With increased scientific exploration of the agri-food sector, it has been discovered that food sources (plants, animals, and microorganisms) contain bioactive components with health promoting and disease preventing potentials.
Current trends reveal that, experts in the health sector are actively exploring the option of using natural bioactive compounds, as alternatives to synthetic drugs, due to their health ameliorating prospects and minimal side-effect. Bioactive macromolecules obtained from natural sources, such as peptides, dietary fibers/prebiotics, and lipids, are added to foods such as beverages, yoghurts and cereals to enhance their bio-functionality, or in food supplements as nutraceuticals for dose regulated delivery of bioactive effects. Multiple biological activities, at in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trial stages, have been reported for a good number of these bioactive macromolecules including antioxidative, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties (Aryee & Boye, 2015a; Cudennec et al., 2015; McClements et al., 2009; Udenigwe & Aluko, 2012; Vieira Da Silva, Barreira, & Oliveira, 2016). Whilst some of these bioactives have already been commercialized, translation from laboratory-scale research into marketable products remains a major challenge (Udenigwe, 2014). To aid the translation of these bioactive macromolecules into functional foods or nutraceuticals, some major steps are required. They include extraction of bioactive compounds from the parent source, purification of the active ingredient/separation from contaminants, characterization of both physical and chemical properties, toxicity studies, assessment of bioactivities at in vitro, in vivo and human studies (digestion simulation, bioaccessibility, bioavailability), and development of efficient delivery systems (Aryee & Boye, 2015b; Azmir et al., 2013).
An understanding of the influence of extraction processes (old and new) on the physicochemical properties of these active ingredients will guarantees a suitable qualitative and quantitative end product (Azmir et al., 2013). Effective extraction of bioactive macromolecules is also dependent on several factors including temperature, pressure, extraction time, particle size, pH, and choice of solvent, hence, these conditions should be considered when selecting a method for extracting bioactive agents, so as to obtain high extract yields while maintaining the structural integrity of the desired compound. All extraction techniques share the common goal of (1) improving the selectivity of analytical techniques; (2) extracting target compound(s); (3) converting functional ingredients into more suitable forms; and (4) providing reproducible methods independent of variations in sample matrix (Azmir et al., 2013). Interesting reviews outlining the mechanisms and benefits of newer extraction technologies are available (Azmir et al., 2013; Bleakley & Hayes, 2017; Torres, Santos, & Meireles, 2015), however, an in-depth study of the influence of these techniques on the extraction efficiency and physicochemical properties of bioactive macromolecules is lacking.
This review takes a critical look at the role of some of these extraction processes; in enhancing the yield and quality of extracts, their comparative efficiencies, underlying mechanisms of operation, and the pros and cons of new extraction methods, and analytical methods.
Section snippets
Overview of protein and peptide extraction techniques
Proteins and peptides are important bio-functional ingredients in the nutraceutical and functional food market. In general, peptide-based drugs are currently valued at $75 billion/year with sales increasing at a rapid pace, and an annual revenue of $20 billion corresponding to 2% of global drug sales (Kadam, Tiwari, Alvarez, & Donnell, 2015). Proteins are natural polymers of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. The physicochemical properties of proteins; hydrophobicity, isoelectric
Overview of extraction techniques for bioactive lipids
Lipids are a diverse group of chemical compounds that are soluble in organic solvents but sparingly soluble in polar solvents. They include fatty acids, phospholipids, acylglycerols, phytosterols, fat soluble vitamins, and carotenoids (McClements et al., 2009). In biological systems, lipids function as structural components of cell membranes, important signalling molecules, and storage energy (Bernal, Mendiola, Ibanez, & Cifuentes, 2011). Various lipid groups play beneficial roles in disease
Overview of extraction techniques for dietary fibers and prebiotics
Dietary fibers and prebiotics are similar in composition and biological activities but differ slightly. All prebiotics are dietary fibers but not all dietary fibers are prebiotic (Slavin, 2013). The Institute of Medicine defined dietary fibers as “non-digestible carbohydrates and lignin that are intrinsic and intact in plants” whereas functional fibers are “isolated, non-digestible carbohydrates that have physiological benefits” (Trumbo, Schlicker, Yates, & Poos, 2002). Some examples of fiber
Future direction
Extraction is key to obtaining bio-functional ingredients of adequate amount and quality. From this review, it is obvious that the inclusion of technology-aided processes has significantly enhanced extraction efficiency and physicochemical properties, although not without some challenges. This is good news for both the scientific community and industries. Hence, food industries should take steps to maximizing the multiple benefits from the application of these active agents in our food, by
Acknowledgments
C.L. Okolie's MSc. research program was supported by MITACS and Acadian Seaplants Limited, Canada.
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