Full length articleFormation of eta carbide in ferrous martensite by room temperature aging
Graphical abstract
The direct correlation of TEM (a) and APT (b) enables to identify the nm-scale, carbon-rich features forming after two years of room temperature aging in martensitic Fe-15Ni-1C wt% as eta carbides.
Introduction
Carbon(C)-containing martensitic steels are inexpensive and widely used for high-strength applications, e.g. in the automotive, energy and aerospace industries [[1], [2], [3]]. Martensite forms by a diffusionless phase transformation during quenching or mechanical loading of austenite. For Fe-C alloys the C solubility in austenite is a factor of ∼100 times higher than in martensite. Practically all high strength steel alloys lie in the range between these solubility limits, so that martensite is initially always highly supersaturated with C in solid solution; at least in the moment immediately after the martensitic transformation. Thermal activation rapidly initiates C partitioning among the matrix and defects such as dislocations and internal interfaces, cluster formation and carbide precipitation [[4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21]]. Regarding the distribution of C atoms, two major effects are responsible for the strength of martensite: solid solution strengthening in concert with defect decoration and precipitation hardening by carbides. Hence, understanding the mechanism of carbide precipitation in C-supersaturated martensite is of basic scientific importance for a wide range of steels. In particular, the rearrangement of C atoms in martensite within several years at room temperature (RT) is of crucial relevance, as most martensitic steels face these conditions within industrial applications.
In contrast to the common assumption of ‘frozen-in’ diffusion kinetics at RT, carbon atoms are mobile even at RT and diffuse [9]. The subject of C-redistribution in martensite at RT has already been addressed for several decades [9,10,[22], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31]]. From a fundamental understanding point of view, this effect would ideally be investigated in the binary Fe-C system. However, the lowest martensite start temperature that can be achieved in this system is about 130 °C for the Fe-1.4 wt% C composition [2] (alloying with more carbon leads to the formation of pearlite). Thus, autotempering inevitably occurs in Fe-C alloys which already leads to C clustering, segregation, and the precipitation of carbides, and subsequently the depletion of C in the matrix during further quenching to room temperature after martensitic transformation [8,24]. For this reason, it is not possible to investigate the redistribution of C in martensite under well-defined isothermal conditions at RT in the binary Fe-C system or in other low-alloyed steels. However, the addition of Ni as an austenite-stabilizing element is a widely-applied approach that allows reduction of the martensite start temperature to below RT [9]. C-supersaturated martensite is then created by quenching in liquid nitrogen, where any C diffusion remains kinetically suppressed until heating up to RT. Using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Taylor et al. [9] observed nanoscale cross-hatched patterns on {203} habit planes in martensite, already after 5.5 h at RT in a Fe-15Ni-1C (wt.%) alloy, which they attributed to the redistribution of C. These patterns were observed to coarsen upon further aging from a spacing of 1.7 nm after 0.75 h to 5.0 nm after 720 h 1D atom probe measurements of this Fe-15Ni-1C (wt.%) alloy indicated that C-rich features containing ∼11 at.% C had formed after 1580 h at RT. Contradictory results were obtained by Mössbauer spectroscopy measurements of martensite having composition Fe-1.86 wt% C, which indicated the formation of Fe4C (20 at.% C) after 2160 h of RT aging [32]. More recent 3D atom probe measurements in the years 2009 [33] and 2013 [34] revisited this disagreement in carbon content and confirmed the earlier 1D atom probe results. Hence, the discrepancy between Mössbauer spectroscopy and atom probe tomography (APT) results remains unresolved.
Up to now, this topic was investigated primarily by either only TEM or by only APT. Here, we instead use both techniques and by a direct-correlative approach combine them on the exact same specimen to univocally correlate structural features measured by TEM with chemical features measured by APT. In the present work, we especially focus on the later stages of RT aging, between two to three years, in an Fe-15Ni-1C (wt.%) alloy.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
An 800 g ingot of Fe-15Ni-1C (wt.%) alloy was cast using electrolytically cleaned raw material in a 60 mm × 25 mm x 90 mm Cu crucible in a vacuum induction furnace. The ingot was hot rolled at 1150 °C from 60 to 6 mm. The rolled band was cut in 10 cm segments and the oxide layers were mechanically ground off. The segments were stacked and wrapped into Mo foil that served as a diffusion barrier, and further encapsulated in boxes of Thermax steel sheet that were sealed air-proof by welding. The
Results and discussion
The results and discussion section of this manuscript is organized in the following way. First an overview of the microstructure of lenticular martensite is given. Then we identify which features found by APT correspond to those observed by TEM. This is realized by applying both techniques to exactly the same specimen location [51]. Next, we identify the crystal structure of the features of interest by conducting SAD along different zone axes, followed by a habit plane analysis based on APT and
Conclusions
Carbon redistribution in the martensitic phase of an as-quenched Fe-15Ni-1C (wt.%) alloy has been investigated within a time frame of 2–3 years of RT aging. The main findings are as follows:
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Nanometer-sized η-Fe2C-type carbides were observed by direct-correlative TEM/APT analysis.
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According to APT analysis, these η-Fe2C carbides have a chemical composition of 26.8 ± 2.5 at.% C, 60.1 ± 3.8 at.% Fe and 13.1 ± 4.0 at.% Ni. However, due to size-related APT artifacts, the real C-content must be higher
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge E. Welsch for support with the TEM measurements and T. Meiners for the STEM-EDS measurements. The authors also thank B. Gault for fruitful discussion and APT reconstruction support. The authors are grateful to U. Tezins and A. Sturm for their support with the FIB and APT facilities at MPIE. MH acknowledges the Federal Ministry of Education and Research [Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF)] for funding through grant 03SF0535.
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