Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder of childhood, resulting in impairments in academic, mental health, and functional domains. Whereas the short-term effects of ADHD are well documented, much less is understood about the adolescent and adult outcomes of children diagnosed with ADHD. This article attempts to increase understanding of these outcomes by providing an integrated summary of prospective longitudinal cohort studies investigating the outcomes of children with ADHD. Particular focus is paid to mental health, educational, and social outcomes, in addition to ADHD persistence. Overall, the data show that children with ADHD experience serious functional deficits across domains in adolescence and early-adulthood. Furthermore, the impairing symptoms of ADHD do not disappear in adulthood, as was once thought. We hope that through improved understanding of risk and protective factors in ADHD, clinicians, families, and schools can better help children with ADHD reach their full potential.
Similar content being viewed by others
References and Recommended Reading
Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, et al.: The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2007, 164:942–948.
Capano L, Minden D, Chen SX, et al.: Mathematical learning disorder in school-age children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Can J Psychiatry 2008, 53:392–399.
Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Mick E, et al.: Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychol Med 2006, 36:167–179.
DuPaul GJ, McGoey KE, Eckert TL, et al.: Preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: impairments in behavioral, social, and school functioning. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001, 40:508–515.
Johnston C, Mash EJ: Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: review and recommendations for future research. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2001, 4:183–207.
Pelham WE, Foster M, Robb JA: The economic impact of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Psychol 2007, 32:711–727.
Weiss G, Hechtman LT: Hyperactive Children Grown Up. New York: Guilford Press; 1993.
Barkley RA: Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, edn 3. New York: Guilford Press; 2006.
Faraone SV, Biederman J, Mick E: The age-dependent decline of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis of follow-up studies: Psychol Med 2006, 36:159–165.
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, edn 4. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
Barkley RA: Major life activity and health outcomes associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2002, 63(Suppl):10–15.
Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, et al.: Young adult outcome of hyperactive children: adaptive functioning in major life activities. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2006, 45:192–202.
Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, et al.: The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 2002, 111:279–289.
Hart EL, Lahey BB, Loeber R, et al.: Developmental change in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in boys: a four-year longitudinal study. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1995, 23:729–749.
Antshel KM, Faraone SV, Maglione K, et al.: Temporal stability of ADHD in the high-IQ population: results from the MGH longitudinal family studies of ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008, 47:817–825.
Ford T, Fowler T, Langley K, et al.: Five years on: public sector service use related to mental health in young people with ADHD or hyperkinetic disorder five years after diagnosis. Child Adolesc Ment Health 2008, 13:122–129.
Gaub M, Carlson CL: Gender differences in ADHD: a meta-analysis and critical review. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997, 36:1036–1045.
Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Mick E, et al.: Psychopathology in females with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled, five-year prospective study. Biol Psychiatry 2006, 60:1098–1105.
Owens EB, Hinshaw SP, Lee SS, et al.: Few girls with childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder show positive adjustment during adolescence. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2009, 38:132–143.
Biederman J, Faraone S, Milberger S, et al.: A prospective 4-year follow-up study of attention-deficit hyperactivity and related disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996, 53:437–446.
Biederman J, Faraone S, Milberger S, et al.: Predictors of persistence and remission of ADHD into adolescence: results from a four-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996, 35:343–351.
Lambert NM: Adolescent outcomes for hyperactive children: perspectives on general and specific patterns of childhood risk for adolescent educational, social, and mental health problems. Am Psychol 1988, 43:786–799.
August GJ, Stewart MA, Holmes CS: A four-year follow-up of hyperactive boys with and without CD. Br J Psychiatry 1983, 143:192–198.
Harty SC, Miller CJ, Newcorn JH, et al.: Adolescents with childhood ADHD and comorbid disruptive behavior disorders: aggression, anger, and hostility. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2009, 40:85–97.
Lee SS, Hinshaw S: Severity of adolescent delinquency among boys with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: predictions from early antisocial behavior and peer status. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2004, 33:705–716.
Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Spencer T, et al.: Do stimulants protect against psychiatric disorders in youth with ADHD? A 10-year follow-up study. Pediatrics 2009, 124:71–78.
Lee SS, Lahey BB, Owens EB, et al.: Few preschool boys and girls with ADHD are well-adjusted during adolescence. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2008, 36:373–383.
Rasmussen P, Gillberg C: Natural outcome of ADHD with developmental coordination disorder at age 22 years: a controlled, longitudinal, community-based study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000, 39:1424–1431.
Monuteaux MC, Faraone SV, Michelle Gross L, et al.: Predictors, clinical characteristics, and outcome of CD in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a longitudinal study. Psychol Med 2007, 37:1731–1741.
Hinshaw S, Owens EB, Sami N, et al.: Prospective follow-up of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into adolescence: evidence for continuing cross-domain impairment. J Consult Clin Psychol 2006, 74:489–499.
Biederman J, Petty CR, Monuteaux MC, et al.: The longitudinal course of comorbid oppositional defiant disorder in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: findings from a controlled 5-year prospective longitudinal follow-up study. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2008, 29:501–507.
Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A, et al.: Adult psychiatric status of hyperactive boys grown up. Am J Psychiatry 1998, 155:493–498.
Barkley RA, Fischer M, Edelbrock CS, et al.: The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria: I. An 8-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990, 29:546–557.
Biederman J, Ball SW, Monuteaux MC, et al.: Are girls with ADHD at risk for eating disorders? Results from a controlled, five-year prospective study. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2007, 28:302–307.
Mikami AY, Hinshaw SP, Patterson KA, et al.: Eating pathology among adolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 2008, 117:225–233.
Gillberg IC, Gillberg C, Rasmussen P: Three-year followup at age 10 of children with minor neurodevelopmental disorders: II. School achievement problems. Dev Med Child Neurol 1983, 25:566–573.
Fischer MJ, Barkley RA, Edelbrock CS, et al.: The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria, II: Academic, attentional, and neuropsychological status. J Consult Clin Psychol 1990, 58:580–588.
Hoza B, Gerdes AC, Mrug S, et al.: Peer assessed outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 2005, 34:74–86.
Mikami AY, Hinshaw SP: Resilient adolescent adjustment among girls: buffers of childhood peer rejection and attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2006, 34:825–839.
Barkley RA, Guevremont DC, Anastopoulos AD, et al.: Driving-related risks and outcomes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescents and young adults: a 3- to 5-year follow-up survey. Pediatrics 1993, 92:212–218.
Weiss G, Hechtman L, Milroy T, et al.: Psychiatric status of hyperactives as adults: a controlled prospective 15-year follow-up of 63 hyperactive children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1985, 24:211–220.
Efron D, Sciberras E, Hassell P: Are schools meeting the needs of students with ADHD? Australas J Spec Educ 2008, 32:187–198.
Brassett-Harknett A, Butler N: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an overview of the etiology and a review of the literature relating to the correlates and lifecourse outcomes for men and women. Clin Psychol Rev 2007, 27:188–210.
MTA Cooperative Group: National Institute of Mental Health Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD follow-up: changes in effectiveness and growth after the end of treatment. Pediatrics 2004, 113:762–769.
Barbaresi WJ, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, et al.: Modifiers of long-term school outcomes for children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: does treatment with stimulant medication make a difference? Results from a populationbased study. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2007, 28:274–287.
Scheffler RM, Brown TT, Fulton BD, et al.: Positive association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder medication use and academic achievement during elementary school. Pediatrics 2009, 123:1273–1279.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sciberras, E., Roos, L.E. & Efron, D. Review of prospective longitudinal studies of children with ADHD: Mental health, educational, and social outcomes. Curr Atten Disord Rep 1, 171–177 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12618-009-0024-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12618-009-0024-1