Abstract
Purpose: This study aimed to identify factor structure of a bilingual version (English and Malay) of Internet Addiction Test, a measure of severity on pathological Internet use (PIU); examine the measurement invariant by adding the socio-demographic and Internet use variables as covariates. Method: Pencil-paper questionnaire was distributed to undergraduates in Univerisiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). A total of 1120 valid responses were collected. EFA and CFA were first applied to identify the factor structure of IAT. Multiple indicator multiple cause (MIMIC) model was used to examine the differential item functioning (DIF) and the effect of covariates on the latent factors. Result: A four-factor model demonstrated moderate fit to the data for 17-item of IAT with significant high factor loading. Comparison of MIMIC model with and without DIF indicated that the most meaningful and significant DIF effect were on three items showing direct effect from Chinese to IAT18, IAT19 and IAT20. By controlling the DIF effect, some covariates still present the significant impact on latent factors of IAT, which were female, time spent online, effect on study, years of Internet use experience, general users, other users and Chinese. Conclusions: the risk factors of PIU were male, time spent online, years of Internet use experiences, game users, SNS users, perceived less effect on study. More research is encouraged to examine the racial group difference, including the risk of PIU and item response bias.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adiele, I., & Olatokun, W. (2014). Prevalence and determinants of internet addiction among adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.028.
Akhter, N. (2013). Relationship between internet addiction and academic performance among university undergraduates. Educational Research and Reviews, 8(19), 1793–1796.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). Arlington: American Psychiatric Association.
Azim, D. H. B. F., Zam, N. A. B. M. & Rahman, W. R. A. (2009). Internet Addiction Between Malaysian Male and Female Undergraduate Human Sciences Students of The International Islamic University Malaysia. In The 6th International postgraduate research colloguium (pp. 58–74). Bangkok, Thailand.
Bakken, I. J., Wenzel, H. G., Götestam, K. G., Johansson, A., & Øren, A. (2009). Internet addiction among Norwegian adults: A stratified probability sample study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50(2), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00685.x.
Byrne, B. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (Google eBook). Routledge Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=Gz7HEM0hBuAC&pgis=1.
Canbaz, S., Tevfik Sunte, A., Peksen, Y., & Canbaz, M. A. (2009). Prevalence of the pathological internet use in a sample of Turkish school adolescents. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 38(4), 64–71.
Cao, F., & Su, L. (2006). Internet addiction among Chinese adolescents : Prevalence and psychological features, 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00715.x.
Cao, F., Su, L., Liu, T., & Gao, X. (2007). The relationship between impulsivity and internet addiction in a sample of Chinese adolescents. European Psychiatry : The Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists, 22(7), 466–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2007.05.004.
Chang, M. K., & Law, S. P. M. (2008). Factor structure for Young’s internet addiction test: A confirmatory study. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(6), 2597–2619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.03.001.
van den Eijnden, R. J. J. M., Meerkerk, G.-J., Vermulst, A. A., Spijkerman, R., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2008). Online communication, compulsive internet use, and psychosocial well-being among adolescents: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 655–665. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.655.
Durkee, T., Kaess, M., Carli, V., Sarchiapone, M., Wasserman, C., Hoven, C., & Wasserman, D. (2013). 1672 – Pathological internet use among european adolescents: Psychopathology and self-destructive behaviors. European Psychiatry, 28, 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(13)76661-6.
Echeburúa, E., & de Corral, P. (2010). Addiction to new technologies and to online social networking in young people: A new challenge. Adicciones, 22(2), 91–95 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20549142.
Ferraro, G., Caci, B., D’Amico, A., & Di Blasi, M. (2007). Internet addiction disorder: An Italian study. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10(2), 170–175. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9972.
Frangos, C., Frangos, C., & Kiohos, A. (2010). Internet addiction among Greek University students: Demographic associations with the phenomenon, using the Greek version of Young’s internet addiction test. International Journal of Economic Sciences and Applied Research, 3(1), 49–74.
Gencer, S. L., & Koc, M. (2012). Internet abuse among teenagers and its relations to internet usage patterns and demographics. Educational Technology and Society, 15(2), 25–36.
Griffiths, M. D. (2005). A “components” model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. Journal of Substance Use, 10, 191–197.
Harrington, D. (2008). Confirmatory factor analysis (Google eBook). Oxford University Press Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=PPbgH8fzwAUC&pgis=1.
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60 Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=14777029&AN=35188134&h=0sjRZ+WP+XLvod3dF+Y24CZ4RGzzDz4EmYDx2FSLl4rJBJgYyBieWe3ncgW4CzByTFVre/gMNpy2om3ULe3wHg==&crl=c.
Jelenchick, L. A., Becker, T., & Moreno, M. A. (2012). Assessing the psychometric properties of the internet addiction test (IAT) in US college students. Psychiatry Research, 196(2–3), 296–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.09.007.
Ji, Y. G., Hwangbo, H., Yi, J. S., Rau, P. L. P., Fang, X., & Ling, C. (2010). The influence of cultural differences on the use of social network services and the formation of social capital. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 26(11–12), 1100–1121. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2010.516727.
Katerelos, I., Tsekeris, C., Lavdas, M., & Dimitriou, K. (2011). A psychosocial approach to the use of the internet and massive online role playing games. Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History, 10(1), 73–88.
Khazaal, Y., Billieux, J., Thorens, G., Khan, R., Louati, Y., Scarlatti, E., et al. (2008). French validation of the internet addiction test. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11(6), 703–706. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0249.
Kim, Y., Sohn, D., & Choi, S. M. (2011). Cultural difference in motivations for using social network sites: A comparative study of American and Korean college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(1), 365–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.08.015.
Ko, C.-H., Liu, G.-C., Hsiao, S., Yen, J.-Y., Yang, M.-J., Lin, W.-C., et al. (2009). Brain activities associated with gaming urge of online gaming addiction. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43(7), 739–747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.09.012.
Koo, H. J., & Kwon, J. H. (2014). Risk and protective factors of internet addiction: A meta-analysis of empirical studies in Korea. Yonsei Medical Journal, 55, 1691–1711.
Korkeila, J., Kaarlas, S., Jääskeläinen, M., Vahlberg, T., & Taiminen, T. (2010). Attached to the web--harmful use of the internet and its correlates. European Psychiatry, 25(4), 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2009.02.008.
Kuss, D. J., Shorter, G. W., van Rooij, A. J., Griffiths, M. D., & Schoenmakers, T. M. (2013). Assessing internet addiction using the parsimonious internet addiction components model – A preliminary study. Int J Ment Health Addict, 12(3), 351–366.
Kuss, D. J., Shorter, G. W., van Rooij, A. J., van de Mheen, D., & Griffiths, M. D. (2014). The internet addiction components model and personality: Establishing construct validity via a nomological network. Computers in Human Behavior, 39, 312–321.
Lai, C., Hil, M. P., Mak, K., Watanabe, H., Ang, R. P., Pang, J. S., et al. (2013). Psychometric properties of the internet addiction test in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 38(7), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jst022.
Li, H., Wang, J., & Wang, L. (2009). A survey on the generalized problematic internet use in Chinese college students and its relations to stressful life events and coping style. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 7, 333–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-008-9162-4.
Lu, X., & Yeo, K. J. (2015). Psychometric properties of the internet addiction test in a sample of Malaysian undergraduate students. Psicología Educativa, 21(1), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pse.2015.03.001.
Lu, X., Watanabe, J., Liu, Q., Uji, M., Shono, M., & Kitamura, T. (2011). Internet and mobile phone text-messaging dependency: Factor structure and correlation with dysphoric mood among Japanese adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5), 1702–1709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.009.
Morrison, C. M., & Gore, H. (2010). The relationship between excessive internet use and depression: A questionnaire-based study of 1,319 young people and adults. Psychopathology, 43(2), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277001.
Ng, C. G., Isa, S. M., Hashim, A. H., Pilla, S. K., & Singh, M. K. H. (2012). Validity of the Malay version of the internet addiction test: A study on a Group of Medical Students in Malaysia. Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health / Asia-Pacific Academic Consortium for Public Health., 27, NP2210–NP2219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539512447808.
Odacı, H. (2013). Risk-taking behavior and academic self-efficacy as variables accounting for problematic internet use in adolescent university students. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(1), 183–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.09.011.
Panayides, P., & Walker, M. J. (2012). Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the internet addiction test (IAT) in a sample of Cypriot high school students: The Rasch measurement perspective. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 8(3), 327–351. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v8i3.474.
Park, H. S., Kim, S. H., Bang, S. A., & Yoon, E. J. (2010). Altered regional cerebral glucose metabolism in internet game Oversuers: A 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography study. CNS Spectrums., 15, 159–166.
Petry, N. M., & O’Brien, C. P. (2013). Internet gaming disorder and the DSM-5. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 108(7), 1186–1187. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12162.
Pontes, H. M., Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2015). Clinical psychology of internet addiction : A review of its conceptualization , prevalence , neuronal processes , and implications for treatment. Neuroscience and Neuroeconomics, 4, 11–23. https://doi.org/10.2147/NAN.S60982.
Rahmat, H. (2004). Internet addiction, locus of control, and social isolation aming Malaysian adolescents. Thesis of master degree. International Islamic University Malaysia.
Schermelleh-engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models : Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8(2), 23–74.
Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2012). A Beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling: Third edition (Google eBook). Routledge Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=30KkFDyUvEoC&pgis=1.
Siomos, K. E., Dafouli, E. D., Braimiotis, D. A., Mouzas, O. D., & Angelopoulos, N. V. (2008). Internet addiction among Greek adolescent students. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11(6), 653–657. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2008.0088.
Spada, M. M. (2014). An overview of problematic internet use. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 3–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.09.007.
Tsai, H. F., Cheng, S. H., Yeh, T. L., Shih, C.-C., Chen, K. C., Yang, Y. C., & Yang, Y. K. (2009). The risk factors of internet addiction—A survey of university freshmen. Psychiatry Research, 167(3), 294–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.01.015.
Whang, L. S.-M., Lee, S., & Chang, G. (2003). Internet over-users’ psychological profiles: A behavior sampling analysis on internet addiction. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 6(2), 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493103321640338.
Widyanto, L., Griffiths, M. D., & Brunsden, V. (2011). A psychometric comparison of the internet addiction test, the internet-related problem scale, and self-diagnosis. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14(3), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0151.
Woods, C.M. & Edwards, M. C. (2007). Handbook of Statistics: Epidemiology and Medical Statistics (Google eBook). (D. C. Rao, C.R., Miller.J.P.& Rao, Ed.) (Vol. 2007). Elsevier. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?id=M0c58Rw3bEsC&pgis=1
Yang, S. C., & Tung, C. J. (2007). Comparison of internet addicts and non-addicts in Taiwanese high school. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(1), 79–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.037.
Yates, T. M., Gregor, M. A., & Haviland, M. G. (2012). Child maltreatment, alexithymia, and problematic internet use in Young adulthood. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15(4), 219–225. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0427.
Yen, J.-Y., Ko, C.-H., Yen, C.-F., Wu, H.-Y., & Yang, M.-J. (2007). The comorbid psychiatric symptoms of internet addiction: Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, social phobia, and hostility. The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 41(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.02.002.
Young, K. S. & de Abreu, C. N. (2011). Internet addiction: A handbook and guide to evaluation and treatment. (K. S. Young & C. N. de Abreu, Eds.). John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,uid&db=psyh&AN=2010-22949-000&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Funding
This study was funded by Zhejiang Philosophy and social science Planning Foundation (浙江省哲学社会科学规划课题) (Grant No. 19NDJC069YB).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethnical Approval
All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with ethical standards of institutional and national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was given to all participants in order to get their allowance for this study.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lu, X., Yeo, K., Guo, F. et al. Factor structure and a multiple indicators multiple cause model of internet addiction test: the effect of socio-demographic and internet use variables. Curr Psychol 39, 769–781 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00234-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00234-9