Abstract
In this paper, I explore the complex ethical dynamics of violence and nonviolence in Mahāyāna Buddhism by considering some of the historical precedents and scriptural prescriptions that inform modern and contemporary Buddhist acts of self-immolation. Through considering these scripturally sanctioned Mahāyāna ‘case studies,’ the paper traces the tension that exists in Buddhist thought between violence and nonviolence, outlines the interplay of key Mahāyāna ideas of transcendence and altruism, and comments on the mimetic status and influence of spiritually charged texts. It is the contention of this paper that violent scriptural metaphors can create paradigms of enactment that are paradoxically illustrative of the core ‘non-violent’ Mahāyāna virtues of compassion (karuṇā), giving (dāna), patience (kṣānti), and vigor (vīrya). The discussion will show that these virtues are underpinned by the Mahāyāna philosophical mainstays of non-duality (advayavāda), bodhisattvic transcendent altruism, skillful means (upāya), and dependent co-origination (pratītyasamutpāda).
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Notes
The Five Precepts (pañcaśīla) are as follows: ‘to refrain from harming living creatures, to refrain from taking what has not been given, to refrain from sexual immorality, to refrain from speaking falsely, and to refrain from taking intoxicants.’ (Keown 2005, 9)
Full title in translation: White Lotus of the True Dharma
In addition to the Dalai Lama’s use of ‘nonviolence,’ we can also cite the Vietnamese master Thích Nhất Hạnh’s use of the term as a translation of ahiṃsā. See the discussion below and Hạnh (1993).
Other texts that outline instances of self-immolation by various means (but not auto-cremation) include the Jatakas and the Upāyakauśalya Sūtra.
In contemporary Buddhist temples in China, there are still notices forbidding the burning of fingers or toes (personal communication)
In the upāyakauśalya sūtra, we see the development of this notion through the stories of the compassionate actions of the Buddha in previous lives—actions that, on the surface, may not appear morally sound but, from the perspective of the bodhisattva, are instances of upāya. See Tatz (1994).
This is the rationale for the often contradictory nature of the vast Buddhist corpus and the diversity of practices, but according to the Lotus, there is ‘really and truly’ ultimately one path and practice or one vehicle (ekayāna) and that is found in the teachings of the Lotus.
This teaching became especially important in some forms of Zen and later in Tibetan teachings where certain masters employed a kind of crazy wisdom that transgressed Buddhist precepts and traditions ostensibly in the service of a ‘greater wisdom’ or a ‘greater’ good.
See Yün-hua (1965, 258) on this point. He also outlines Indian objections to what they called the practice of ‘self-destruction.’
The image has been extensively used in popular culture, for example, the self-titled Rage Against the Machine (1992) album cover.
See Whalen-Bridge (2015) for a complete list. Sixty-eight immolators are described as monks, nuns, or ex-monks and nuns. The greater percentage of the others is described as ‘Tibetan rights activists.’ Regular self-immolations by Tibetans began in 2011.
Interestingly, the Lotus is increasingly referred to in Tibetan online forums and blogs discussing the contemporary self-immolations. See http://tibet.net/situation-in-tibet/factsheet-immolation-2011-2012/ and http://www.jamyangnorbu.com/blog/2012/01/03/self-immolation-and-buddhism/ for examples.
From Jamyang Norbu’s Shadow Tibet blog: ‘Forty-five kilometers south-east of Katmandu is one of the most popular pilgrimage sites for Tibetans visiting Nepal. The hill of Namo Buddha (or Tagmo Lujin in Tibetan) is—the Golden Light Sutra (phags pa gser ‘od dam pa’i mdo) tells us—the very place where the Buddha (in a previous incarnation) gave up his body to feed a starving tigress and her four cubs. This is a popular Jātaka story with all Tibetans and is often brought up in conversations whenever an example of self-sacrifice or selfless conduct is required.’ In contrast, Whalen-Bridge (2015, 82) disputes the prevalence of this story.
In this paper, we are focusing on the religious or Buddhist motivations for self-immolation—this is not to maintain that religious reasons are the only motivations. Buddhist ideas are intimately connected to Tibetan culture, but the self-immolations cannot be attributed to a single motivation. See Whalen-Bridge (2015) for a comprehensive study of the complex motivational issues.
Also known as Sonam Wangyal. Tulku is a reincarnate Buddhist master.
Compare the Socratic idea that no harm can come to a good person.
‘As long as space abides, and as long as the world abides, so long may I abide, destroying the sufferings of the world.’ (Śāntideva 1995)
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Davis, L.S. Enacting the Violent Imaginary: Reflections on the Dynamics of Nonviolence and Violence in Buddhism. SOPHIA 55, 15–30 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-016-0524-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-016-0524-2