Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Autism and Intellectual Disability: A Systematic Review of Sexuality and Relationship Education

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Sexuality and Disability Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders, including Autism (ASD) and intellectual disability (ID), have a right and need for appropriate sexuality and relationship education (SRE). These individuals often have the same desires as typically-developing people to express their sexuality and form intimate relationships; and may have an increased risk of sexual exploitation and abuse. While there are various materials recommended for teaching SRE to these groups, there is a lack of empirical evaluation of such. A systematic review was carried out on peer-reviewed articles published in English between 1980 and March 2018 to identify what SRE programs have been evaluated empirically, highlighting their content, methods of delivery, efficacy in changing knowledge and behavioural outcomes, and limitations. Thirty-three studies were retained for inclusion which quantitatively evaluated SRE interventions delivered to individuals diagnosed with ID (approximately 63%) and ASD. Most of the studies evaluated stand-alone programs derived from mixed sources within the broader SRE literature. They focused more on biological content (e.g., anatomy, puberty, reproduction) and self-awareness/safety (e.g., boundaries, assertiveness, privacy) than personal sexuality (e.g., sexual orientation, masturbation) and relationships (e.g., dating, emotions, parenting). Most programs improved outcomes, however the overall quality of included studies was poor. Limitations included scant description of theoretical and ethical paradigms within programs and use of non-validated outcome measures. Recommendations for future research and clinical implications are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC (2013)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  2. Chen, J.A., Swarup, V., Geschwind, D.H., Belgard, T.G., Peñagarikano, O.: The emerging picture of autism spectrum disorder: genetics and pathology. Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 10(1), 111–144 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathol-012414-040405

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Kenny, L., Hattersley, C., Molins, B., Buckley, C., Povey, C., Pellicano, E.: Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community. Autism [Internet] 20(4), 442–462 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361315588200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Baio, J., Wiggins, L., Christensen, D.L., Maenner, M.J., Daniels, J., Warren, Z., et al.: Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years—autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2014. MMWR Surveill Summ. 67(6), 1 (2018). https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss6706a1

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Zablotsky, B., Black, L.I., Blumberg, S.J.: Estimated prevalence of children with diagnosed developmental disabilities in the United States, 2014–2016. NCHS Data Brief. (291): 1–8 (2017). Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29235982

  6. McPartland, J.C., Law, K., Dawson, G.: Autism spectrum disorder. In: Friedman, H.S. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Mental Health, 2nd edn, pp. 124–130. Elsevier, Waltham (2016)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  7. Sullivan, A., Caterino, L.C.: Addressing the sexuality and sex education of individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Educ. Treat Child. [Internet] 31(3), 381–394 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.0.0001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Brown-Lavoie, S., Viecili, M., Weiss, J.: Sexual knowledge and victimization in adults with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev. Disord. [Internet] 44(9), 2185–2196 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2093-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Murphy, G.H., O’Callaghan, A.: Capacity of adults with intellectual disabilities to consent to sexual relationships. Psychol. Med. [Internet] 34(7), 1347–1357 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291704001941

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Tamas, D., Brkic, N., Milana, J., Tamas, D.: Professionals, parents and the general public : attitudes towards the sexuality of persons with intellectual disability. Sex. Disabil. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-018-09555-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Gougeon, N.A.: Sexuality and autism: a critical review of selected literature using a social-relational model of disability. Am. J. Sex. Educ. [Internet] 5(4), 328–361 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2010.527237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Fernandes, L., Gillberg, C., Cederlund, M., Hagberg, B., Gillberg, C., Billstedt, E.: Aspects of sexuality in adolescents and adults diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders in childhood. J. Autism Dev. Disord. [Internet] 46(9), 3155–3165 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2855-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Schöttle, D., Briken, P., Tüscher, O., Turner, D.: Sexuality in autism: hypersexual and paraphilic behavior in women and men with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 19(4), 381 (2017)

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Pecora, L.A., Mesibov, G.B., Stokes, M.A.: Sexuality in high-functioning autism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Autism Dev. Disord. [Internet] 46(11), 3519–3556 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2892-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Thompson, V.R., Stancliffe, R.J., Broom, A., Wilson, N.J.: Barriers to sexual health provision for people with intellectual disability: a disability service provider and clinician perspective. J. Intellect. Dev. Disabil. [Internet] 39(2), 137–146 (2014). https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2014.898742

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Stokes, M., Newton, N., Kaur, A.: Stalking, and social and romantic functioning among adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. [Internet] 37(10), 1969–1986 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0344-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Schaafsma, D., Kok, G., Stoffelen, J., Curfs, L.: People with intellectual disabilities talk about sexuality: implications for the development of sex education. Sex. Disabil. [Internet] 35(1), 21–38 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-016-9466-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Barnett, J.P., Maticka-Tyndale, E.: Qualitative exploration of sexual experiences among adults on the Autism spectrum: implications for sex education. Perspect. Sex. Reprod. Health [Internet] 47(4), 171–179 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1363/47e5715

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. George, R., Stokes, M.A.: Gender identity and sexual orientation in autism spectrum disorder. Autism 22(8), 970–982 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361317714587

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Byers, E., Nichols, S.: Sexual satisfaction of high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder. Sex. Disabil. [Internet] 32(3), 365–382 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-014-9351-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Byers, E., Nichols, S., Voyer, S.: Challenging stereotypes: sexual functioning of single adults with high functioning autism spectrum disorder. J. Autism Dev. Disord. [Internet] 43(11), 2617–2627 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1813-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. George, R., Stokes, M.A.: Sexual orientation in autism spectrum disorder. Autism Res. 11(1), 133–141 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1892

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Hénault, I.: Asperger’s syndrome and sexuality: from adolescence through adulthood. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  24. Attwood, S., Powell, J.: Making sense of sex: a forthright guide to puberty, sex and relationships for people with Asperger’s syndrome. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  25. Travers, J., Tincani, M., Whitby, P.S., Boutot, E.A.: Alignment of sexuality education with self determination for people with significant disabilities: a review of research and future directions. Educ. Train. Autism Dev. Disabil. [Internet] 49(2), 232–247 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  26. Koller, R.: Sexuality and adolescents with autism. Sex. Disabil. [Internet] 18(2), 125–135 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005567030442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Tullis, C.A., Zangrillo, A.N.: Sexuality education for adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. Psychol. Sch. [Internet] 50(9), 866–875 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21713

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Khemka, I., Hickson, L., Reynolds, G.: Evaluation of a decision-making curriculum designed to empower women with mental retardation to resist abuse. Am. J. Ment. Retard. [Internet] 110(3), 193 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2005)110%3c193:EOADCD%3e2.0.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Travers, J., Tincani, M.: Sexuality education for individuals with autism spectrum disorders: Critical issues and decision making guidelines. Educ. Train. Autism Dev. Disabil. 45(2), 248–293 (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  30. Hénault, I.: Understanding relationships and sexuality in individuals with high-functioning ASD. In: Scarpa, A., Williams White, S., Attwood, T., Scarpa, A., Williams White, S., Attwood, T. (eds.) CBT for Children and Adolescents with High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders, pp. 278–299. Guilford Press, New York (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  31. Blanchett, W.J., Wolfe, P.S.: A review of sexuality education curricula: meeting the sexuality education needs of individuals with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities. Res. Pract. Pers. Sev. Disabil. 27(1), 43–57 (2002). https://doi.org/10.2511/rpsd.27.1.43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Schaafsma, D., Kok, G., Stoffelen, J.M.T., Curfs, L.M.G.: Identifying effective methods for teaching sex education to individuals with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review. J. Sex. Res. 52(4), 412–432 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.919373

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Attwood, T.: The complete guide to Asperger’s syndrome. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  34. Esmail, S., Darry, K., Walter, A., Knupp, H.: Attitudes and perceptions towards disability and sexuality. Disabil. Rehabil. 32(14), 1148–1155 (2010). https://doi.org/10.3109/09638280903419277

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Stone, S.D.: Reactions to invisible disability: the experiences of young women survivors of hemorrhagic stroke. Disabil. Rehabil. 27(6), 293–304 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280400008990

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. McLay, L., Carnett, A., Tyler-Merrick, G., van der Meer, L.: A systematic review of interventions for inappropriate sexual behavior of children and adolescents with developmental disabilities. Rev. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 2(4), 357–373 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-015-0058-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd edn. American Psychiatric Association, WashingtonDC (1980)

    Google Scholar 

  38. Thomas, B.H., Ciliska, D., Dobbins, M., Micucci, S.: A process for systematically reviewing the literature: Providing the research evidence for public health nursing interventions. Worldviews Evid. Based Nurs. 1(3), 176–184 (2004)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Cunningham, A., Sperry, L., Brady, M.P., Peluso, P.R., Pauletti, R.E.: The effects of a romantic relationship treatment option for adults with autism spectrum disorder. Couns. Outcome Res. Eval. 7(2), 99–110 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137816668561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Valenti-Hein, D.C., Yarnold, P.R., Mueser, K.T.: Evaluation of the dating skills program for improving heterosocial interactions in people with mental retardation. Behav. Modif. [Internet] 18(1), 32–46 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455940181003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Visser, K., Greaves-Lord, K., Tick, N.T., Verhulst, F.C., Maras, A., Vegt, E.J.M.: A randomized controlled trial to examine the effects of the Tackling Teenage psychosexual training program for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry [Internet] 58(7), 840–850 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12709

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Graff, H.J., Moyher, R.E., Bair, J., Foster, C., Gorden, M.E., Clem, J.: Relationships and sexuality: How is a young adult with an intellectual disability supposed to navigate? Sex. Disabil. 36(2), 175–183 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-017-9499-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Hayashi, M., Arakida, M., Ohashi, K.: The effectiveness of a sex education program facilitating social skills for people with intellectual disability in Japan. J. Intellect. Dev. Disabil. 36(1), 11–19 (2011). https://doi.org/10.3109/13668250.2010.549463

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Box, M., Shawe, J.: The experiences of adults with learning disabilities attending a sexuality and relationship group: “I want to get married and have kids”. J. Fam. Plan. Reprod. Health Care 40(2), 82–88 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1136/jfprhc-2012-100509

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Dekker, L.P., van der Vegt, E.J.M., Visser, K., Tick, N., Boudesteijn, F., Verhulst, F.C., et al.: Improving psychosexual knowledge in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: pilot of the tackling teenage training program. J. Autism Dev. Disord. [Internet] 45(6), 1532–1540 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2301-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Pask, L., Hughes, T.L., Sutton, L.R.: Sexual knowledge acquisition and retention for individuals with autism. Int. J. Sch. Educ. Psychol. [Internet] 4(2), 86–94 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2016.1130579

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Corona, L.L., Fox, S.A., Christodulu, K.V., Worlock, J.A.: Providing education on sexuality and relationships to adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and their parents. Sex. Disabil. [Internet] 34(2), 199–214 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-015-9424-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. McDermott, S., Kelly, M., Spearman, J.: Evaluation of a family planning program for individuals with mental retardation. Sex. Disabil. [Internet] 12(4), 307–317 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02575322

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Robinson, S.: Effects of a sex education program on intellectually handicapped adults. Aust. N. Z. J. Dev. Disabil. [Internet] 10(1), 21–26 (1984). https://doi.org/10.3109/13668258409018663

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Penny, R.E.C., Chataway, J.E.: Sex education for mentally retarded persons. Aust. N. Z. J. Dev. Disabil. [Internet] 8(4), 204–212 (1982). https://doi.org/10.3109/13668258209018763

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Garwood, M., McCabe, M.P.: Impact of sex education programs on sexual knowledge and feelings of men with a mild intellectual disability. Educ. Train. Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. [Internet] 35(3), 269–283 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  52. Visser, K., Greaves-Lord, K., Tick, N.T., Verhulst, F.C., Maras, A., van der Vegt, E.J.M.: Study protocol: a randomized controlled trial investigating the effects of a psychosexual training program for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. BMC Psychiatry [Internet] 28(15), 207 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0586-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Egemo-Helm, K.R., Miltenberger, R.G., Knudson, P., Finstrom, N., Jostad, C., Johnson, B.: An evaluation of in situ training to teach sexual abuse prevention skills to women with mental retardation. Behav. Interv. [Internet] 22(2), 99–119 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Miltenberger, R.G., Roberts, J.A., Ellingson, S., Galensky, T., Rapp, J.T., Long, E.S., et al.: Training and generalization of sexual abuse prevention skills for women with mental retardation. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. [Internet] 32(3), 385–388 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1999.32-385

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Kim, Y.-R.: Evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention program for children with intellectual disabilities. Behav. Interv. [Internet] 31(2), 195–209 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1439

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Wells, J., Clark, K.D., Sarno, K.: A computer-based interactive multimedia program to reduce HIV transmission for women with intellectual disability. J. Intellect. Disabil. Res. 56(4), 371–381 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2011.01482.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Dukes, E.: BE M (2009) Enhancing capacity to make sexuality-related decisions in people with an intellectual disability. J. Intellect. Disabil. Res. [Internet] 53(8), 727–734 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2009.01186.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Lindsay, W.R., Bellshaw, E., Culross, G., Staines, C., Michie, A., et al.: Increases in knowledge following a course of sex education for people with intellectual disabilities. J Intellect Disabil. Res. [Internet] 36(6), 531–539 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.1992.tb00571.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Caspar, L.A., Glidden, L.M.: Sexuality education for adults with developmental disabilities. Educ. Train. Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. [Internet] 36(2), 172–177 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-1115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Rushton, J.: Learning together. Nurs. Times 90(9), 44–46 (1994)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Lumley, V.A., Miltenberger, R.G., Long, E.S., Rapp, J.T., Roberts, J.A.: Evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention program for adults with mental retardation. J. Appl. Behav. Anal. [Internet] 31(1), 91–101 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1998.31-91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Haseltine, B., Miltenberger, R.G.: Teaching self-protection skills to persons with mental retardation. Am. J. Ment. Retard. 95(2), 188–197 (1990)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. McDermott, S., Martin, M., Weinrich, M., Kelly, M.: Program evaluation of a sex education curriculum for women with mental retardation. Res. Dev. Disabil. [Internet] 20(2), 93–106 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-4222(98)00035-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Plaks, M., Argaman, R., Stawski, M., Qwiat, T., Polak, D., Gothelf, D.: Social-sexual education in adolescents with behavioral neurogenetic syndromes. Isr. J. Psychiatry Relat. Sci. 47(2), 28–34 (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  65. Mueser, K.T., Valenti-Hein, D., Yarnold, P.R.: Dating-skills groups for the developmentally disabled: social skills and problem-solving versus relaxation training. Behav. Modif. 11(2), 200–228 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455870112005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Sheppard, L.: Growing pains: a personal development program for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities in a specialist school. J. Intellect. Disabil. [Internet] 10(2), 121–142 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1177/1744629506064009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Zylla, T., Demetral, G.D.: A behavioral approach to sex education. Sex. Disabil. 4(1), 40–48 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01102463

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Foxx, R.M., McMorrow, M.J., Storey, K.: Rogers BM (1984) Teaching social/sexual skills to mentally retarded adults. Am. J. Ment. Defic. [Internet] 89(1), 9–15 (1984)

    Google Scholar 

  69. Foxx, R.M., Faw, G.D.: An eight-year follow-up of three social skills training studies. Ment. Retard. [Internet] 30(2), 63–66 (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  70. Foxx, R.M., McMorrow, M.J.: Teaching social skills to mentally retarded adults: Follow-up results from three studies. Behav. Ther. 8, 77–78 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  71. Robinson, S.: Effects of a sex education program on intellectually handicapped adults. Aust. N. Z. J. Dev. Disabil. 10(1), 21–26 (1984). https://doi.org/10.3109/13668258409018663

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Lindsay, W.R., Michie, A.M., Staines, C., Bellshaw, E., Culross, G.: Client attitudes towards relationships: changes following a sex education programme. Br. J. Learn. Disabil. 22(2), 70–73 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3156.1994.tb00119.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Lee, Y.K., Tang, C.S.: Evaluation of a sexual abuse prevention program for female Chinese adolescents with mild mental retardation. Am. J. Ment. Retard. [Internet] 103(2), 105–116 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(1998)103%3c0105:EOASAP%3e2.0.CO;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Bejerot, S., Eriksson, J.M.: Sexuality and gender role in autism spectrum disorder: a case control study. PLoS One [Internet] 9(1), e87961 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087961

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Walker-Hirsch, L., Champagne, M.P.: The circles concept: Social competence in special education. Contemp. Issues Sex. Educ. 49(1), 65–67 (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  76. Helmich, J.: What is comprehensive sexuality education? Going waaaaay beyond abstinence and condoms. Am. J. Sex. Educ. 4(1), 10–15 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1080/15546120902870315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Saxe, A., Flanagan, T.: Unprepared: an appeal for sex education training for support workers of adults with developmental disabilities. Sex. Disabil. [Internet] 34(4), 443–454 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-016-9449-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Wolfe, P.S.: The influence of personal values on issues of sexuality and disability. Sex. Disabil. 15(2), 69–90 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Hwy, Burwood, 3125, Australia

    Giorgia Sala, Merrilyn Hooley, Tony Attwood, Gary B. Mesibov & Mark A. Stokes

Authors
  1. Giorgia Sala
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Merrilyn Hooley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Tony Attwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gary B. Mesibov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Mark A. Stokes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mark A. Stokes.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sala, G., Hooley, M., Attwood, T. et al. Autism and Intellectual Disability: A Systematic Review of Sexuality and Relationship Education. Sex Disabil 37, 353–382 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-019-09577-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11195-019-09577-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation