Abstract
Yield mapping is increasingly used in agricultural management. The distributions produced from the majority of these datasets are non-normal and can be misleading if used in the decision making process. Numerous studies over the last 25 years, published in various formats, have highlighted the sources of errors that contribute to this non-normality and have proposed a variety of post-processing methods to reduce their effect. A comprehensive cataloging of the types of errors present and methods used to remove them as well as the approaches to and effects of post-processing error removal is needed. This review identifies four types of yield mapping measurement errors: issues associated with harvesting dynamics of the combine harvester, the continuous measurement of moisture and yield, the accuracy of positional data and errors caused by the harvester operator. Methods to remove errors range from simple thresholds to complex routines that incorporate harvest position and local yield variation. The benefits of applying filters have focused on the removal of erroneous yield variation based on simple descriptive statistics, the creation of yield distributions that show greater normality and the decrease of the nugget-variance relationship and prediction variance estimated in yield map interpolation. Publication of these parameters should accompany the interpolated yield map for both unprocessed and post-processed datasets to provide an insight into the reliability of the collected measurements and the effectiveness of the routines implemented. Examples from commercial growers in Western Australia are used to reinforce the review’s findings and highlight the potential for extensions to current methods to remove errors associated with harvester speed, narrow finishes and harvester turns and overlaps. This paper suggests extending the current routine implementation of error removal towards an automated post-processing system.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arslan, S., & Colvin, T. S. (2002a). An evaluation of the response of yield monitors and combines to varying yields. Precision Agriculture, 3, 107–122.
Arslan, S., & Colvin, T. S. (2002b). Grain yield mapping: Yield sensing, yield reconstruction, and errors. Precision Agriculture, 3, 135–154.
Atwood, J. A., Shaik, S., & Watts, M. (2003). Are crop yields normally distributed? A reexamination. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 85(4), 888–901.
Bachmaier, M., & Auernhammer, H. (2005). Yield mapping based on robust paraboloid cones in butterfly and elliptic neighbourhoods.. In J. V. Stafford (ed.), Precision agriculture ‘05: Proceedings of the 5th European conference on precision agriculture (pp. 741–751). Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
Beal, J. P., & Tian, L. F. (2001). Time shift evaluation to improve yield map quality. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 17(3), 385–390.
Beck, A. D., Roades, J. P., & Searcy, S. W. (1999). Post-process filtering techniques to improve yield map accuracy. Paper No. 991048. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI, USA.
Beck, A. D., Searcy, S. W., & Roades, J. P. (2001). Yield data filtering techniques for improved map accuracy. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 17(4), 432.
Bethea, R. M., Duran, B. S., & Boullion, T. L. (1985). Statistical methods for engineers and scientists (2nd ed.). New York: M. Dekker.
Birrell, S. J., Sudduth, K. A., & Borgelt, S. C. (1996). Comparison of sensors and techniques for crop yield mapping. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 14(2–3), 215–233.
Blackmore, B.S. (2003). The role of yield maps in precision farming. National Soil Resources Institute. PhD thesis. Cranfield University, Great Britain. 170 pp.
Blackmore, S., & Marshall, C. (1996). Yield mapping: Errors and algorithms. In P. C. Robert, A. H. Rust, & W. E. Larson (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on precision agriculture (pp. 403–415). Madison: ASA/CSSA/SSSA.
Blackmore, S., & Moore, M. (1999). Remedial correction of yield map data. Precision Agriculture, 1(1), 53–66.
Burrough, P. A., & McDonnell, R. A. (1998). Principles of geographic information systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chung, S. O., Sudduth, K. A., & Drummond, S. T. (2002). Determining yield Monitoring system delay time with geostatistical and data segmentation approaches. Transactions of the ASAE, 45(4), 915–926.
Drummond, S. (2005). Yield Editor 1.02 Beta Version. http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=4776. Accessed 29 Oct 2013.
Drummond, S. T., Fraisse, C. W., & Sudduth, K. A. (1999). Vector method for determining harvest area using combine position data. In P. C. Robert, A. H. Rust and W. E. Larson (eds.), Proceedings of the 4th international conference on precision agriculture (pp. 1141–1150). Madison, WI: ASA, CSSA, and SSSA.
Drummond, S. T., & Sudduth, K. A. (2005). Analysis of errors affecting yield map accuracy. In D. J. Mulla (ed.), Proceedings of the 7th international conference on precision agriculture (pp. 1478–1490),CD-ROM. St. Paul, MN: Precision Agriculture Center, University of Minnesota.
Fulton, J. P., Sobolik, C. J., Shearer, S. A., Higgins, S. F., & Burks, T. F. (2009). Grain yield monitor flow sensor accuracy for simulated varying field slopes. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 25(1), 15–21.
Griffin, T.W., Brown, J.P.,& Lowenberg-DeBoer, J. (2005). Yield monitor data analysis protocol: A primer in the management and analysis of precision agriculture data.. Department of Agricultural Economics. Purdue University, Lafayette, IN, USA. http://www.purdue.edu/ssmc/publications/YieldDataAnalysis.pdf. Accessed 29 Oct 2013.
Griffin, T. W., Dobbins, C. L., Vyn, T., Florax, R. J. G. M., & Lowenberg-DeBoer, J. (2008). Spatial analysis of yield monitor data: Case studies of on-farm trials and farm management decision-making. Precision Agriculture, 9, 269–283.
Han, S., Schneider, S. M., Rawlins, S. L., & Evans, R. G. (1997). A bitmap method for determining effective combine cut width in yield mapping. Transactions of the ASAE, 40(2), 485–490.
Harri, A., Erdem, C., Coble, K. H., & Knight, T. O. (2009). Crop yield distributions: A reconciliation of previous research and statistical tests for normality. Review of Agricultural Economics, 31(1), 163–182.
Hennessy, D. A. (2009). Crop yield skewness and the normal distribution. Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 34(1), 34–52.
Joernsgaard, B., & Halmoe, S. (2003). Intra-field yield variation over crops and years. European Journal of Agronomy, 19(1), 23–33.
Just, R. E., & Weninger, Q. (1999). Are crop yields normally distributed? American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 81(2), 287–304.
Kastens D.L., T.L. Kastens, R. Taylor, & Price, K.P. (2000). Using geographical techniques and an understanding of combine operation for generating spatially continuous yield maps from yield monitor data. In Proceedings of the second international conference on geospatial information in agriculture and forestry (vol. II, pp. 414–421). Lake Buena Vista, FL, 10–12 January, 2000.
Lamb, J. A., Anderson, J. L., Malzer, G. L., Vetch, J. A., Dowdy, R. H., Onken, D. S., & Ault, K. I. (1995). Perils of monitoring grain yield on-the- go. In P. C. Robert, R. H. Rust and W. E. Larson (eds.), Proceedings of the second international conference on site-specific management for agricultural systems (pp. 87–91). Madison, USA: ASA-CSSA-SSSA.
Lark, R. M., Stafford, J. V., & Bolam, H. C. (1997). Limitations on the spatial resolution of yield mapping for combinable crops. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 66, 183–193.
Lee, D. H., Sudduth, K. A., Drummond, S. T., Chung, S. O., & Myers, D. B. (2012). Automated yield map delay identification using phase correlation methodology. Transactions of the ASABE, 55(3), 743–752.
Minasny, B., McBratney, A.B.,& Whelan, B. M. (2005). VESPER version1.62—Variogram Estimation and Spatial Prediction plus ERror. Australian Centre for Precision Agriculture. http://sydney.edu.au/agriculture/pal/software/vesper.shtml. Accessed 29 Oct 2013.
Moore, M. R. (1998). An investigation into the accuracy of yield maps and their subsequent use in crop management. PhD thesis, Silsoe College. Cranfield University, UK. 371 pp.
Noack, P. H., Muhr, T., & Demmel, M. (2003a). An algorithm for automatic detection and elimination of defective yield data. In J.V.Stafford and A. Werner (eds.), Proceedings of the 4th European conference on precision agriculture (pp. 445–451). Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
Noack, P. H., Muhr, T., & Demmel, M. (2003b). Relative accuracy of different yield mapping systems installed on a single combine harvester. In J.V.Stafford and A. Werner (eds.), Proceedings of the 4th European conference on precision agriculture (pp. 445–451). Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
Noack, P. H., Muhr, T., & Demmel, M. (2005). Effect of interpolation methods and filtering on the quality of yield maps. In J. V. Stafford (ed.), Precision agriculture ‘05: Proceedings of the 5th European conference on precision agriculture (pp. 701–707). Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
Nolan, S. C., Haverland, G. W., Goddard, T. W., Green, M., & Penny, D. C. (1996). Building a yield map from geo-referenced harvest measurement. In P. C. Robert, R. H. Rust and W. E. Larson (eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on precision agriculture (pp. 885–893). Madison, WI: ASA, CSSA, SSSA.
Pierce, F. J., Anderson, N. W., Colvin, T. S., Schueller, J. K., Humburg, D. S., & McLaughlin, N. B. (1997). Yield Mapping. In The state of site-specific management for agricultural systems (pp. 211–243). Madison, WI: ASA, CSSA and SSSA.
Ping, J. L., & Dobermann, A. (2005). Processing of yield map data. Precision Agriculture, 6(2), 193–212.
Ramirez, O. A., Misra, S., & Field, J. (2003). Crop-yield distributions revisited. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 85(1), 108–120.
Rands, M. (1995). The development of an expert filter to improve the quality of yield data. MSc thesis, Department of Agriculture and Environmental Engineering. Silsoe College, Cranfield University. UK.
Reitz, P., & Kutzbach, H. D. (1996). Investigations on a particular yield mapping system for combine harvesters. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 14(2–3), 137–150.
Robertson, M. J., Lyle, G., & Bowden, J. W. (2008). Within-field variability of wheat yield and economic implications for spatially variable nutrient management. Field Crops Research, 105, 211–220.
Robinson, T. P., & Metternicht, G. (2005). Comparing the performance of techniques to improve the quality of yield maps. Agricultural Systems, 85, 19–41.
Shearer, S.A., Higgins, S.G., McNeill, S.G., Watkins, G.A., Barnhisel, R. I., Doyle, J. C., Leach, J. H., & Fulton, J. P. (1997). Data filtering and correction techniques for generating yield maps from multiple combine systems. Paper No. 971034. ASAE, St Joseph, MI, USA.
Shearer, S. A., Higgins, S. G., McNeill, S. G., Watkins, G. A., Barnhisel, R. I., Doyle, J. C., Leach, J. H., & Fulton, J. P. (2005). Post-Processing Correction to Improve the Accuracy of Yield Monitor Data in Grain Crops. In D. J. Mulla (ed.), Proceedings of the seventh international conference on precision agriculture (pp. 173–186). MN, USA: Precision Agriculture Center, University of Minnesota.
Simbahan, G. C., Dobermann, A., & Ping, J. L. (2004). Screening yield monitor data improves grain yield maps. Agronomy Journal, 96(4), 1091–1102.
Stafford, J. V., Ambler, B., Lark, R. M., & Catt, J. (1996). Mapping and interpreting the yield variation in cereal crops. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 14(2–3), 101–119.
Sudduth, K. A., & Drummond, S. T. (2007). Yield Editor: Software for removing errors from crop yield maps. Agronomy Journal, 99, 1471–1482.
Taylor, R. K., Kastens, D. L., & Kastens, T. L. (2000). Creating yield maps from yield monitoring data using multipurpose grid mapping (MPGM). In P. C. Robert, R. H. Rust and W. E. Larsen (eds.) Proceedings of the fifth international conference on precision agriculture, CD-ROM. Madison, WI: ASA, CSSA and SSA.
Taylor, J. A., McBratney, A. B., & Whelan, B. M. (2007). Establishing management classes for broadacre agricultural production. Agronomy Journal, 99, 1366–1376.
Taylor, J., Whelan, B., Thylen, L., Gilbertsson, M.,& Hassall, J. (2005). Monitoring wheat protein content on-harvester: Australian experiences. In J.V. Stafford (ed.) Proceedings of the 5th European conference on precision agriculture (pp. 369–375). Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
Thylen, L., Algerbo, P. A., & Giebel, A. (2000). An expert filter removing erroneous yield data. In P. C. Robert, R. H. Rust and W. E. Larsen (eds.), Proceedings of the fifth international conference on precision agriculture (pp. 1–9), CD-ROM. Madison, WI: USA. ASA, CSSA.
Thylen, L., & Murphy, D. P. L. (1996). The control of errors in momentary yield data from combine harvesters. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 64(4), 271–278.
Webster, R., & Oliver, M. A. (2001). Statistical methods in soil and land resource survey. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Whelan, B. M., & McBratney, A. B. (1997). Sorghum grain flow convolution within a conventional combine harvester. In J. V. Stafford (ed.), Precision Agriculture ‘97: Proceedings of the first European conference on precision agriculture (pp. 759–766). Bios: Oxford.
Whelan, B. M., McBratney, A. B., & Minasny, B. (2001). VESPER - spatial prediction software for precision agriculture. In G. Grenier, S. Blackmore. (eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd European Conference on Precision Agriculture. Montpellier, France. pp. 139-144.
Wong, M. T. F., & Asseng, S. (2006). Determining the causes of spatial and temporal variability of wheat yields at sub-field scale using a new method of upscaling a crop model. Plant and Soil, 283, 203–215.
Zhao, C., Huang, W., Chen, L., Meng, Z., Wang, Y., & Xu, F. (2010). A harvest area measurement system based on ultrasonic sensors and DGPS for yield map correction. Precision Agriculture, 11(2), 163–180.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the CSIRO and the growers for access to their yield data used in this paper. Greg Lyle is a PhD candidate supported by a University of Adelaide Faculty of Sciences divisional scholarship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lyle, G., Bryan, B.A. & Ostendorf, B. Post-processing methods to eliminate erroneous grain yield measurements: review and directions for future development. Precision Agric 15, 377–402 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11119-013-9336-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11119-013-9336-3