Skip to main content
Log in

Hydrogeological investigation of mud-mound springs developed over a weathered basalt aquifer on the Liverpool Plains, New South Wales, Australia

  • Report
  • Published:
Hydrogeology Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The growth and collapse of mud mounds at a site on the Liverpool Plains in northern New South Wales, Australia has been observed over a 12-year period. The mud mounds appeared in a flat field for the first time in living memory in 1989, but their prior existence in the early Holocene is indicated by archaeological data. The piezometric head in bores drilled through a 7-m bed of clayey silt and screened in weathered basalt at a depth of 8 m was more than 2 m above ground level. Clay has been carried in suspension by water seeping to the ground surface where it has accumulated and formed a mound. Approximately eight years after their initial appearance, the growth of the mounds stopped and within a further three years they had almost completely disappeared.

Mechanisms for the growth and decay of the mounds are reviewed. The chemistry of the shallow bore water and the water seeping from the surface of the mounds was dominated by sodium bicarbonate with a 4 mEq/l increase between the weathered basalt and the surface of the mound. Inverse modelling (PHREEQC) is used to determine possible chemical reactions that can account for this increase.

Résumé

La croissance et l'effondrement de monticules de vase situés dans les plaines de Liverpool, dans le nord des Nouvelles Galles du Sud, ont été observés pendant 12 ans. Les monticules de vase sont apparus en terrain plat pour la première fois de mémoire d'homme en 1989; mais leur existence antérieure dès le début de l'Holocène est attesté par des données archéologiques. Le niveau piézométrique dans des forages traversant 7 m de silt argileux et recouvrant un basalte altéré à 8 m était de plus de 2 m au-dessus de la surface du sol. L'argile a été apportée en suspension par l'eau suintant à la surface du sol où elle s'est accumulée pour former un monticule. Environ 8 ans après leur première apparition, la croissance des monticules s'est arrêtée et ils ont presque complètement disparu dans les 3 ans qui ont suivi.

Les mécanismes de croissance et de régression de ces monticules sont passés en revue. La chimie de l'eau des forages à proximité de la surface et de l'eau filtrant à la surface des monticules était dominée par le bicarbonate de sodium, avec une augmentation de 4 meq/l entre le basalte altéré et la surface du monticule. Une modélisation inverse (PHREEQC) a été mise en œuvre pour déterminer les réactions possibles pouvant rendre compte de cet accroissement.

Resumen

Se ha observado durante 12 años el crecimiento y el colapso de montículos de lodo en un emplazamiento ubicado en las Llanuras de Liverpool, en el estado australiano de Nueva Gales del Sur. Según la memoria existente, los montículos de lodo aparecieron en un campo llano por vez primera en 1989, pero, por datos arqueológicos, se conoce de su existencia a comienzos del Holoceno. Los niveles piezométricos en sondeos perforados a través de 7 m de limos arcillosos y ranurados en el basalto meteorizado a 8 m son superiores en más de 2 m a la superficie del terreno. La arcilla es portada en suspensión por el agua que descarga hacia la superficie del terreno, donde se acumula y forma el montículo. Unos 8 años después de su aparición, el crecimiento de los montículos se detiene y éstos acaban prácticamente desapareciendo en otros 3 años.

Se revisa los mecanismos que originan el crecimiento y desaparición de los montículos. La química de las aguas someras de los sondeos y del agua que se filtra desde la superficie de los montículos está dominada por bicarbonato sódico, con un incremento de 4 meq/L entre el basalto meteorizado y la superficie del montículo. Se utiliza la modelación inversa (PHREEQC) para determinar las reacciones químicas que pueden explicar dicho aumento.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3a–c.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5a, b.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acworth RI, Jankowski J (1997) The relationship between bulk electrical conductivity and dryland salinity in the Narrabri formation at Breeza, Liverpool Plains, New South Wales, Australia. Hydrogeol J 5:109–123

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Acworth RI, Beasley R (1998) Investigation of EM31 anomalies at Yarramanbah/Pump Station Creek on the Liverpool Plains of New South Wales. WRL Research Report No 195, 57 pp. ISBN: 0 85824 028 9

  • Acworth RI (1999) Investigation of dryland salinity using the electrical image method. Aust J Soil Res 37:623–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Appelo CAJ (1994) Cation and proton exchange, pH variations, and carbonate reactions in a freshening aquifer. Water Resour Res 30(10):2793–2805

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appelo CAJ, Postma D (1996) Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution. Balkema, Rotterdam, 536 pp

  • Baker, JC, Bai, GP, Hamilton PJ, Golding SD and Keene, JB (1995) Continental-scale magmatic carbon dioxide seepage recorded by dawsonite in the Bowen-Gunnedah-Sydney basin system, eastern Australia. J Sediment Res A65:522–530

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ball JW and Nordstrom DK (1991) WATEQ4F—User's manual with revised thermodynamic data base and test cases for calculating speciation of major, trace and redox elements in natural waters. US Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-129, Denver, Colorado, 185 pp

  • Banks R (1995) Soil Landscapes of the Curlewis 1:100,000 sheet. Department of Conservation and Land Management, New South Wales, Australia, 225 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Cartwright I, Weaver T, Tweed S, Ahearne D, Cooper M, Czapnik K, Tranter J (2002) Stable isotope geochemistry of cold CO2-bearing mineral spring waters, Daylesford, Victoria, Australia: sources of gas and water and links with waning volcanism. Chem Geol 185:71–91

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Habermehl MA (1982) Springs in the Great Artesian Basin—their origin and nature. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysics Report No 234, Australian Government Publishing Service

  • Hamilton DS, Newton CB, Smyth M, Gilbert TD, Russell N, McMinn A and Etheridge LT (1993) Petroleum potential of the Gunnedah and Surat Basins. In: Tadros NL (ed) The Gunnedah Basin, New South Wales. Geological Survey of New South Wales, Memoir Geology 12, Department of Mineral Resources, Coal and Petroleum Geology Branch, New South Wales

  • Jones NT, Kavanagh MA, Acworth RI (1998) Hydrogeological investigation of a mound springs site in the Lake Goran Catchment, Liverpool Plains, NSW. In: Proceedings of the International Groundwater Conference 1998, Groundwater: sustainable solutions, Melbourne, 8–13 February 1998

  • Lavitt N (1999) Integrated approach to geology, hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry in the Lower Mooki River catchment. PhD Thesis, University of New South Wales, New South Wales

  • Parkhurst DL, Appelo CAJ (1999) User's guide to PHREEQC (version 2): a computer program for speciation, batch-reaction, one-dimensional transport, and inverse geochemical calculations. Water Resources Investigations Report No 99-4259, US Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado

  • Salotti D (1994) Liverpool Plains catchment drilling completion Report TS 94.097. Department of Water Resources, Technical Services Division, Paramatta, Sydney

  • Schofield SK (1998) The geology, hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry of the Ballimore region, central New South Wales. Dissertation, University of New South Wales, New South Wales

  • Schofield S, Jankowski J (1998) The origin of sodium-bicarbonate groundwater in a fractured aquifer experiencing magmatic carbon dioxide degassing: the Ballimore region, central NSW, Australia. In: Arehart, Hulston (eds) Water–rock interaction, pp 271–274

  • Toth J (1971) Groundwater discharge: a common generator of diverse geologic and morphologic phenomena. Bull Int Sci Hydrol 16(1.3):7–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Timms WA, Acworth RI (2002) Induced leakage due to groundwater pumping and flood irrigation at the Pullaming Agricultural Field Station, Liverpool Plains. Water Research Laboratory, Research Report No 208, 105 pp

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the manager of the Elroi Downs property, Mr. R. Bell, for permission to access the site. The project was partially funded by the NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation. Professor Richard Wright of Sydney University made the archaeological observations at the site. Nigel Jones undertook part of the investigation as a coursework master's project at the University of New South Wales. Mark Groskops of the Water Research Laboratory overcame major difficulties in the field to install the monitoring points and undertake field measurements. The authors gratefully acknowledge Edwin Weeks and John Czarnecki, who provided detailed and thoughtful analysis of an early version of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to R. Ian Acworth.

Electronic Supplementary Material

List of captions for ESM figures/plates

Plates 1 to 8 show the development of Mound 2 with bore 36975/4 in the foreground. The orientation of the gate valve remained fixed – pointing approximately to the northwest.

ESM-1_sm

ESM-2_sm

ESM-3_sm

ESM-4_sm

ESM-5_sm

ESM-6_sm

ESM-7_sm

ESM-8_sm

ESM-9_sm

ESM-10_sm

ESM-11_sm

ESM-12_sm

ESM-13_sm

ESM-14_sm

ESM-15_sm

ESM-16_sm

ESM-17_sm

ESM-fig-4_sm

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Acworth, R.I., Timms, W.A. Hydrogeological investigation of mud-mound springs developed over a weathered basalt aquifer on the Liverpool Plains, New South Wales, Australia. Hydrogeology Journal 11, 659–672 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-003-0278-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-003-0278-0

Keywords

Navigation