Abstract
The present study investigated the factorial validity of a four-factor model of gender stereotypes in 888 subjects (97% Anglo-Australian Caucasian). The scale reflected the constructs desirable masculinity, desirable femininity, undesirable masculinity and undesirable femininity. LISREL analyses showed that this four-factor model fitted the data better than either a two-factor model consisting of overall masculinity and femininity or an one-factor bipolar model. Furthermore, the study highlights the utility of studying both desirable and undesirable gender traits as they generally predicted different behaviors for males and females.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Al-Issa, I. (1982). Gender and psychopathology in perspective. In I. Al-Issa, (Ed.),Gender and psychopathology. New York: Academic Press.
Anastasi, A. (1990).Psychological testing (6th ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Antill, J. K., Cunningham, J. D., Russell, G., & Thompson, N. L. (1981). An Australian Sex-Role Scale.Australian Journal of Psychology, 33 169–183.
Arrindell, W. A., Kolk, A. M., Pickersgill, M. J., & Hageman, W. J. J. M. (1993). Biological sex, sex roles, sex role orientation, masculine sex role stress, dissimulation and self-reported fears.Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15 103–146.
Beebe, D. W., Holmbeck, G. N., Albright, J. S., Noga, K., & Decastro, B. (1995). Identification of binge prone women: An experimentally and psychometrically validated cluster analysis in a college population.Addictive Behaviors, 20 451–462.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42 155–162.
Bem, S. L. (1981).Bem Sex-Role Inventory: Professional manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Blanchard-Fields, F., Suhrer-Roussel, L., & Hertzog, C. (1994). A confirmatory factor analysis of the Bem Sex Role Inventory: Old questions, new answers.Sex Roles, 30 423–457.
Brems, C., & Johnson, M. E. (1990). Re-examination of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory:The Interpersonal BSRI Journal of Personality Assessment, 55 484–498.
Butcher, J. N., Dahlstrom, W. G., Graham, J. R., Tellegen, A., & Kaemmer, B. (1989):Manual for the restandardized Minnesota Multiphaisic Inventory: MMPI-2. An administrative and interpretive guide. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Callan, V. J., Gallois, C., Noller, P., & Kashima, Y. (1992).Social psychology (2nd ed.). Sydney: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Collins, R., & Lapp, W. M. (1992). The Temptation and Restraint Inventory for measuring drinking restraint.British Journal of Addiction, 87 625–633.
Constantinople, A. (1973). Masculinity-femininity: An exception to a famous dictum?Psychological Bulletin, 80 389–407.
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology.Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24 349–354.
Davidson-Katz, K. (1991). Gender roles and health. In C. R. Synder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.),Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective. New York: Pergamon.
Deux, K., & Major, B. (1987). Putting gender into context; An interactive model of gender-related behavior.Psychological Review, 94 369–389.
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model.Annual Review of Psychology, 41 417–440.
Fanning, P., & McKay, M. (1993).Being a man: A guide to the new masculinity. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Gough, H. G. (1987).California Psychological Inventory. 1987 revised edition. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Gralen, S. J., Levine, M. P., Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (1990). Dieting and disordered eating during early and middle adolescence: Do the influences remain the same?International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9 501–512.
Greenfield, T. K., & Weisner, C. (1995). Drinking problems and self-reported criminal behavior, arrests and convictions: 1990 US alcohol and 1989 county surveys.Addiction, 90 361–373.
Grimmell, D., & Stern, G. S. (1992). The relationship between gender role ideals and psychological well-being.Sex Roles, 27 487–497.
Heatherton, T. F., Herman, C. P., Polivy, J., King, G. A., & McGree, S. T. (1988). The (mis)measurement of restraint: An analysis of conceptual and psychometric issues.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97 19–28.
Hedeboe, J., Charles, A. V., Nielsen, J., Grymer, F., Moller, B. N., Moller-Madson, B., & Jensen, S. E. T. (1985). Interpersonal violence: patterns in a Danish community.American Journal of Public Health, 75 651–653.
Herman, C. P., Polivy, J., Pliner, P., Threlkeld, J, & Munic, D. (1978). Distractability in dieters and non-dieters: An alternative view of externality.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36 536–548.
Holland, J. L. (1985).Vocational Preference Inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Hoyle, R. H., & Sowards, B. A. (1993). Self-monitoring and the regulation of social experience: A control-process model.Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12 280–306.
Hull, J. G., & Bond, C. E., Jr. (1986). Social and behavioral consequences of alcohol consumption and expectancy: A meta-analysis.Psychological Bulletin, 99 347–360.
Hunt, M. G. (1993). Expressiveness does predict well-being.Sex Roles, 29 147–169.
Huseled, R. F., & Cooper, M. L. (1992). Gender roles as mediators of sex differences in adolescent alcohol use and abuse.Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33 348–362.
Jaffe, J. H., Babor, T. F., & Fishbein, D. M. (1988). Alcoholics, aggression and antisocial personality.Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 49 211–218.
Kleinke, C. L., & Hinrichs, C. A. (1983). College adjustment problems and attitudes toward drinking reported by feminine, androgynous, and masculine college women.Psychology of Woman Quarterly, 7 373–382.
Klonoff, E. A., & Landrine, H. (1992). Sex roles, occupational roles, and symptom reporting: A test of competing hypotheses on sex differences.Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15 355–364.
Lancelot, C., & Kaslow, N. J. (1994). Sex role orientation and disordered women: A review.Clinical Psychology Review, 14 139–157.
Lowe, M. R. (1993). The effects of dieting on eating behavior: A three-factor model.Psychological Bulletin, 114 100–121.
Marsh, H. W., Antill, J. K., & Cunningham, J. D. (1989). Masculinity and femininity; A bipolar construct and independent constructs.Journal of Personality, 57 625–663.
Marsh, H. W., & Myers, M. (1986). Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny: A methodological and theoretical critique.Sex Roles, 14 397–430.
McCreary, D. R., & Korabik, K. (1994). Examining the relationships between the socially desirable and undesirable aspects of agency and communion.Sex Roles, 31 637–650.
McMonnies, C. W. (1990). Left-right discrimination in adults.Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 73 155–158.
Mooney, D. K., Fromme, K., Kivlahan, D. R., & Maretlett, K. (1987). Correlates of alcohol consumption Sex, age, and expectancies relate differentially to quantity and drinking.Addictive Behaviors, 12 235–240.
Mori, D., Pliner, P., & Chaiken, S. (1987). “Eating lightly” and the self-presentation of femininity.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 693–702.
Ogden, J. H. (1993). The measurement of restraint: Confounding success and failure.International of Eating Disorder, 13 69–76.
Page, S., & Bennesch, S. (1993). Gender and reporting differences in measures of depression.Canadian Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 25 579–589.
Pedhazur, E. J., & Schmelkin, L. P. (1991).Measurement, design, and analysis: An integrated approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlaum Associates.
Ray, J. J. (1974).Conservatism as heresy. Sydney: Australian and New Zealand Book Coy.
Ricciardelli, L. A., & Williams, R. J. (1994).Sex, gender stereotypes and Left/right confusion. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Russell, G., & Antill, J. (1984). An Australian Sex-Role Scale: Additional psychometric data and correlations with self-esteem.Australian Psychologist, 19 13–18.
Russo, N. F., Green, B. L., & Knight, G. (1993). The relationship of gender, self-esteem, and instrumentality to depressive symptomatology.Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12 218–2336.
Sakoda, J. M., Cohen, B. H., & Beall, G. (1953). Test of significance from a series of statistical tests.Psychological Bulletin, 51 172–174.
Sherer, M., & Adams, C. H. (1983). Construct validation of the self-efficacy scale.Psychological Reports, 53 899–902.
Sherer, M., Maddux, J. E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., & Rogers, R. W. (1982). The self-efficacy scale: Construction and validation.Psychological Reports, 51 663–671.
Sherin, E. N., Russ, M. J., Hull. J. W., Vlarkin, J. F., & Smith, G. P. (1994). Construct validity of the three-factor eating questionnaire: Flexible and rigid control subscales.International Journal of Eating Disorders, 16 187–198.
Skinner, H. A., & Allen, B. A. (1982). Alcohol dependence syndrome: Measurement and validation.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91 199–209.
Spence, J. T. (1993). Gender-related traits and gender ideology: Evidence for a multifactorial theory.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64 624–635.
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Holahan, C. K. (1979). Negative and positive components of psychological masculinity and femininity and their relationships to self-reports of neurotic and acting out behaviors.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37 1673–1682.
SPSS, Inc. (1993).SPSS LISREL 7 and PRELIS. Chicago: SPSS, Inc.
Sorrell, G. T., Silvia, L. Y., & Busch-Rossnagel, N. A. (1993). Sex-role orientation and self-esteem in alcoholic and nonalcoholic women.Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 54 566–573.
Steele, C. M., & Southwick, L. (1985). Alcohol and social behavior: The psychology of drunken excess.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48 18–34.
Steinberg, W. (1993).Masculinity: Identity, conflict and transformation. Boston: Shambhala.
Stunkard, A. J., & Messick, S. (1985). The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger.Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 29 71–83.
Stunkard, A. J., & Messick, S. (1988).Eating Inventory manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Teng, E. L., & Lee, A. L. (1982). Right-left discrimination: No sex difference amongst normals on the hand test and the route test.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 55 299–302.
Thompson, E. H., Jr., E. H., Peck, J. H., & Ferrera, D. L. (1992). Men and masculinities: Scales for masculinity ideology and masculinity-related constructs.Sex Roles, 27 573–607.
Tiggemann, M. (1994). Gender differences in the interrelationships between weight dissatisfaction, restraint, and self-esteem.Sex Roles, 30 319–330.
Williams, R. J., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (in press).Expectancies as predictors of alcohol dependency in young adults. Addiction.
Williams, R. J., Ricciardelli, L. A. & Kiernan, M. (1995).Restraint as a predictor of drinking and alcohol dependence. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Williams, R. J., Ricciardelli, L. A., Wortley, R. K., & Bush, R. (1995).Interactions amongst sex, gender stereotypes, drinking, and global positive expectancies for alcohol use. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Williams, R. J., Standen, K., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (1993a). Sex differences in self-reported right-left confusion by adults: A role for social desirability.Social Behavior and Personality, 21 327–332.
Williams, R. J., Standen, K., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (1993b). A scale for assessing left-right confusion.Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 76 123–126.
Zung, B. J. (1979). Psychometric properties of the MAST and two briefer versions.Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 4 845–859.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ricciardelli, L.A., Williams, R.J. Desirable and undesirable gender traits in three behavioral domains. Sex Roles 33, 637–655 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01547722
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01547722